Chapter 1

Case Study

- A full picture of one individuals psychological functioning. - Provides rich, descriptive insights into factors that affect development. - May be biased by researchers theoretical preferences.

Self Reports - clinical interview

- Flexible interviewing procedure in which the investigator obtains a complete account of the participant's thoughts. - Comes as close as possible to the way participants think in everyday life. - May not result in accurate reporting of information.

Structured observation

- Observation of behavior in a laboratory, where conditions are the same for all participants. - Grants each participant an equal opportunity to display the behavior of interest. - May not yield observations typical of participants' behavior in everyday life.

Naturalistic observation

- Observation of behavior in natural contexts. - Reflects participants' everyday lives - Cannot control conditions under which participants are observed.

Ethnography

- Participant observation of a culture or distinct social group. - Provides a more complete description than can be derived from a single observational visit. - May be biased by researchers' values and theoretical preferences.

Self Reports - structured interview, tests.

- Self report instruments in which each participant is asked the same questions in the same way. - Permits comparisons of participants' responses and efficient data collection. - Does not yield the same depth of information as a clinical interview.

Theory

A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data

Correlation coefficient

A number that describes how two measures or variables are associated with each other; a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Natural observation

A research method in which the investigator goes into the field, or natural environment, and records the behavior of interest.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Dynamic systems perspective

A view that regards the child's mind, body, and physical and social worlds as a dynamic, integrated system. A change in any part of the system leads the child to reorganize his or her behavior so the various components work together again, but in a more complex, effective way.

Informed consent

All participants, including children, have the right to have explained to them, in language appropriate to their level of understanding, all aspects of the research that may affect their willingness to participate.

Dynamic systems view of development

An ongoing changing interaction between physical, cognitive and psychosocial influences > nothing happens in isolation, all things interact

Dynamic systems perspective

Both continuous and discontinuous: Change in the system is always ongoing. Stagelike transformations occur as children reorganize their behavior so components of the system work as a functioning whole. Many possible courses: Biological makeup, interests and goals, everyday tasks, and social experiences vary, yielding wide individual differences in specific skills. Both nature and nurture: The child's mind, body, and physical and social surroundings form an integrated system that guides mastery of new skills. Both early and later experiences are important.

Ethology and evolutionary developmental psychology

Both continuous and discontinuous: Children and adults gradually develop a wider range of adaptive behaviors. Sensitive periods occur in which qualitatively distinct capacities emerge fairly suddenly. One course: Adaptive behaviors and sensitive periods apply to all members of a species. Both nature and nurture: Evolution and heredity influence behavior, and learning lends greater flexibility and adaptiveness to it. In sensitive periods, early experiences set the course of later development.

Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory

Both continuous and discontinuous: Language acquisition and schooling lead to stagewise changes. Dialogues with more expert members of society also result in continuous changes that vary from culture to culture. Many possible courses: Socially mediated changes in thought and behavior vary from culture to culture. Both nature and nurture: Heredity, brain growth, and dialogues with more expert members of society jointly contribute to development. Both early and later experiences are important.

Knowledge of results

Children and the adults responsible for them have the right to be informed of the results of research in language that is appropriate to their level of understanding.

Protection from harm

Children have the right to be protected from physical or psychological harm in research. If in doubt about the harmful effects of research, investigators should seek the opinion of others.

Privacy

Children have the right to concealment of their identity on all information collected in the course of research.

information processing theory

Continuous: Children gradually improve in perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving skills. One course: Changes studied characterize most or all children. Both nature and nurture: Children are active, sense-making beings who modify their thinking as the brain grows and they confront new environmental demands. Both early and later experiences are important.

Behaviorism and social learning theory

Continuous: Development involves an increase in learned behaviors. Many possible courses: Behaviors reinforced and modeled may vary from child to child. Emphasis on nurture: Development is the result of conditioning and modeling. Both early and later experiences are important.

Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory

Discontinuous: Cognitive development takes place in stages. One course: Stages are assumed to be universal. Both nature and nurture: Development occurs as the brain grows and children exercise their innate drive to discover reality in a generally stimulating environment. Both early and later experiences are important.

Psychoanalytic perspective

Discontinuous: Psychosexual and psychosocial development takes place in stages. One course: Stages are assumed to be universal. Both nature and nurture: Innate impulses are channeled and controlled through child-rearing experiences. Early experiences set the course of later development.

Beneficial treatments

If experimental treatments believed to be beneficial are under investigation, participants in control groups have the right to alternative beneficial treatments (if available) or to the same treatment (if found to be effective) once the research is complete.

Dependent variable

Is influenced by the independent variable.

Ecological systems theory

Many possible courses: Biologically influenced dispositions join with environmental forces at multiple levels to mold development in unique ways. Both nature and nurture: The individual's characteristics and the reactions of others affect each other in a bidirectional fashion. Both early and later experiences are important.

Emotional state talk

Plays a significant role in bringing about greater understanding of emotion terms and improved emotion comprehension.

correlational research

Research that examines the relationships between variables, whose purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together.

Structured observation

The investigator sets up a laboratory situation that evokes the behavior of interest so that every participant has an equal opportunity to display the response.

Microgenetic design limitations

We observe only occasionally, we can describe development, but we cannot easily capture the processes that produce it.

child development

a field devoted to understanding constancy and change from conception through adolescence

Development science

a field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the lifespan

microgenetic design

a method of study in which the same children are studied repeatedly over a short period - once a year or every few years.

Random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

Nature-nurture controversy

deals with the extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior

Cohort effect

observed group differences based on the era when people were born and grew up, exposing them to particular experiences that may affect the results of cross-sectional studies.

Research designs

overall plans for research studies that permit the best possible test of the investigator's hypothesis

Experimental design

permits inferences about cause and effect because researchers use an evenhanded procedure to assign people to two or more treatment conditions.

Discontinuous stages

qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development

Cross-sectional design

research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time

Longitudinal design

research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time (a few months to several years) or very long (a decade or even a lifetime).

Independent variable

the one factor that can be changed in a controlled experiment; is the factor tested and affects the experiment outcome.

Resilience

the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma

Research methods

the specific activities of participants, such as taking tests, answering questionnaires, responding to interviews, or being observed