Chapter 1 Human Development

social learning theory

Bandura; emphasizes modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of development

information processing

a perspective that the human mind might also be viewed as a symbol, a manipulating system through which information flows

discontinuous development

a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times

lifespan perspective

a view made up of four assumptions: that development is 1) lifelong, 2) multidimensional and multidirectional, 3) highly plastic, and 4) affected by multiple interacting forces

longitudinal design

in these experiments, participants are studied repeatedly, and changes are noted as they get older

sensitive period

a time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences. Its boundaries are less well-defined and development can occur later, but it is harder to induce

behavior modification

consists of procedures that combine conditioning and modeling to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses

cross-sectional design

in this process, groups of people differing in age are studied at the same point in time

correlational design

in this process, researchers gather information on individuals generally in natural life circumstances, without altering their experiences. Then they look at relationships between participants' characteristics and their behavior or development.

cohort effects

individuals born in the same time period are influenced by a particular set of historical and cultural conditions. Results based on one cohort may not apply to people developing at other times.

ethology

it is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history

ethnography/ethnographic research

it is directed toward understanding a culture or a distinct social group through participant observation

experimental design

it permits inferences about cause and effect because researchers use an evenhanded procedure to assign people to two or more treatment conditions

evolutionary developmental psychology

it seeks to understand the adaptive value of species wide cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age

plasticity

means that something is open to change in response to influential experiences

normative approach

measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals, and age-related averages are computed to represent typical development

structured interview

process in which each participant is asked the same set of questions in the same way

sequential designs

process in which researchers conduct several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies (called sequences)

structured observation

process in which the investigator sets up a laboratory situation that evokes the behavior of interest so that every participant has equal opportunity to display the response

stages

qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific period of development

clinical interview

researchers use a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant's point of view

resilience

the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development

nature-nurture controversy

the debate over whether genetic or environmental factors are more important

history-graded influences

they explain why people born around the same time--called a cohort-- tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times

correlation coefficient

this is a number that describes how two measures, or variables, are associated with each other

contexts

unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change

random assignment

using an unbiased procedure, investigators increase the chances that participants' characteristics will be equally distributed across treatment groups

ecological systems theory

views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment

exosystem theory

Bronfenbenner; It consists of social settings that do not contain the developing person but nevertheless affect experiences in immediate settings

chronosystem theory

Bronfenbrenner; Life changes can be imposes externally or can arise from within the person,since individuals shape many of their own settings and experiences

microsystem theory

Bronfenbrenner; consists of activities and interaction patterns in the person's immediate surroundings

macrosystem theory

Bronfenbrenner; consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources

mesosystem theory

Bronfenbrenner; encompasses connections between microsystems

psychosocial theory

Erikson; emphasizes that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual an active, contributing member of society

age-graded influences

Events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last

psychosexual theory

Freud; emphasizes that how parents manage their child's seal and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development

cognitive-developmental theory

Piaget; children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world

social interaction

Vygotsky; cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society-- is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture

sociocultural theory

Vygotsky; focuses on how culture is transmitted to the next generation.

developmental science

a field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the life span

developmental cognitive neuroscience

a field that brings together researches from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing person's cognitive processing and behavior patterns

continuous development

a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with

naturalistic observation

an approach in which one goes into the field, or natural environment, and records the behavior of interest

theory

an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior

behaviorism

believes that directly observable events-- stimuli and responses-- are the appropriate focus of study

psychoanalytic perspective

believes that people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological distress and social expectations. who these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety

clinical/case study method

brings together a wide range of info on one person including interviews, observations, and test scores

nonnormative influences

events that are irregular. they happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable