Chapter 1 Human Development
social learning theory
Bandura; emphasizes modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of development
information processing
a perspective that the human mind might also be viewed as a symbol, a manipulating system through which information flows
discontinuous development
a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times
lifespan perspective
a view made up of four assumptions: that development is 1) lifelong, 2) multidimensional and multidirectional, 3) highly plastic, and 4) affected by multiple interacting forces
longitudinal design
in these experiments, participants are studied repeatedly, and changes are noted as they get older
sensitive period
a time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences. Its boundaries are less well-defined and development can occur later, but it is harder to induce
behavior modification
consists of procedures that combine conditioning and modeling to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses
cross-sectional design
in this process, groups of people differing in age are studied at the same point in time
correlational design
in this process, researchers gather information on individuals generally in natural life circumstances, without altering their experiences. Then they look at relationships between participants' characteristics and their behavior or development.
cohort effects
individuals born in the same time period are influenced by a particular set of historical and cultural conditions. Results based on one cohort may not apply to people developing at other times.
ethology
it is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history
ethnography/ethnographic research
it is directed toward understanding a culture or a distinct social group through participant observation
experimental design
it permits inferences about cause and effect because researchers use an evenhanded procedure to assign people to two or more treatment conditions
evolutionary developmental psychology
it seeks to understand the adaptive value of species wide cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age
plasticity
means that something is open to change in response to influential experiences
normative approach
measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals, and age-related averages are computed to represent typical development
structured interview
process in which each participant is asked the same set of questions in the same way
sequential designs
process in which researchers conduct several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies (called sequences)
structured observation
process in which the investigator sets up a laboratory situation that evokes the behavior of interest so that every participant has equal opportunity to display the response
stages
qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific period of development
clinical interview
researchers use a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant's point of view
resilience
the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development
nature-nurture controversy
the debate over whether genetic or environmental factors are more important
history-graded influences
they explain why people born around the same time--called a cohort-- tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times
correlation coefficient
this is a number that describes how two measures, or variables, are associated with each other
contexts
unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change
random assignment
using an unbiased procedure, investigators increase the chances that participants' characteristics will be equally distributed across treatment groups
ecological systems theory
views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment
exosystem theory
Bronfenbenner; It consists of social settings that do not contain the developing person but nevertheless affect experiences in immediate settings
chronosystem theory
Bronfenbrenner; Life changes can be imposes externally or can arise from within the person,since individuals shape many of their own settings and experiences
microsystem theory
Bronfenbrenner; consists of activities and interaction patterns in the person's immediate surroundings
macrosystem theory
Bronfenbrenner; consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources
mesosystem theory
Bronfenbrenner; encompasses connections between microsystems
psychosocial theory
Erikson; emphasizes that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual an active, contributing member of society
age-graded influences
Events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last
psychosexual theory
Freud; emphasizes that how parents manage their child's seal and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development
cognitive-developmental theory
Piaget; children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world
social interaction
Vygotsky; cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society-- is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture
sociocultural theory
Vygotsky; focuses on how culture is transmitted to the next generation.
developmental science
a field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the life span
developmental cognitive neuroscience
a field that brings together researches from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing person's cognitive processing and behavior patterns
continuous development
a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with
naturalistic observation
an approach in which one goes into the field, or natural environment, and records the behavior of interest
theory
an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior
behaviorism
believes that directly observable events-- stimuli and responses-- are the appropriate focus of study
psychoanalytic perspective
believes that people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological distress and social expectations. who these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety
clinical/case study method
brings together a wide range of info on one person including interviews, observations, and test scores
nonnormative influences
events that are irregular. they happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable