Chapter 10

Cohabitation or Marriage? Marriage

90% in U.S. eventually marry: marriage = public commitment conveys "enforceable trust" - ability to call on family and friends to help enforce agreement lessens fear of abandonment legal pooling of financial resources: security

Marriage Rates in Other Regions

adults are most likely to be married in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, and are least likely to be married in South America, with Europe, North America, and Oceania falling in between cohabitation (living together without marriage) is more common among couples in Europe, North America, Oceania, and—especially—in South America

What is the Family and Household Transition? *Defining Family Demography and Life Chances* Household

all of the people who occupy a housing unit is thus a "residential unit" people who share a housing unit are said to have formed a household (currently a consumption unit, in the past both a production and consumption unit)

Changing Life Chances *Wealth* Ways to Generate Wealth

inherit assets from parents or other relatives - easiest way save part of your income to purchase assets - hardest way borrow money to purchase assets - riskiest way our ability to inherit enough from our parents to build on to create our own wealth depends on: - how many siblings we have - how long our parents are expected to live

Changing Life Chances *Income*

is at least partially a consequence of the way in which we have parlayed a good education into a good job occupation may be the primary clue that people have about our social standing, yet our well-being is thought by most people to be a product of our income level how you spend your money signals to others where you stand in society there's an uneven distribution of income in virtually every human society, and rising inequality in richer countries has become a topic of considerable debate - this increase in inequality is argued to be at the root of the decline of the middle class in the US

What is the Family and Household Transition? *the Growing Diversity in Household Composition and Family Structure*

it's common nowadays for families - to be headed by females - "nontraditional" household inhabited by non-married people - older adults raising their grandchildren - married couples with no children "pluralization" is the term used to describe these changes in household composition substantial racial/ethnic differences exist with respect to female-headed households, especially among families with children - much more African American female-headed households (1/2 of households) traditional households with traditional gender roles are actually a relatively new phenomenon - high mortality alone prevented this type of household from being the norm for most of human history since the end of WWII, demographic conditions have been going under tremendous change all over the globe

Does Marriage Matter? Body of Evidence

marriage matters very much even in a rich modern society - enhances household income and wealth - promotes the well-being of spouses and children - sexual gratification benefits of marriage: - higher household income - save more of their income - more wealth - live longer and engage in less high-risk behaviors - children are better off financially - children are less likely to drop out, have a teenage pregnancy, and be "idle" as a young adult - consistent sex family remains the primary social unit in which society is reproduced appears that the diversification of households in the richer countries has leveled off, at the same time that family and household change is well under way in developing nations smaller families and longer lives lived out in predominantly urban areas seem inevitably to lead to diversification in the household and family structure of a society

Proximate Determinants of Family and Household Changes *Divorce*

marriages are more likely to end in divorce than at any previous time in history reasons: - changes in divorce laws - loosening of men's hold over women has happened all over the world risks: - low income - early age at marriage - lack of similarity (homogamy) - parental divorce (copy-cat) - cohabitation many marriages that in earlier days would have been dissolved by death are now dissolved by divorce - as widowhood declined, divorce rose proportionately important: who initiates the divorce men have a harder time dealing with divorce emotionally (less often initiate), women have more difficulties financially

Changing Life Chances *Income - Differential Income by Race/Ethnicity*

relatively, income for black families has grown slightly faster than that for white families - black families were still earning less than white families *structural mobility* differences in family structure between blacks and whites tend to contribute to this as well - less earners per household - more female heads --- females earn less than men

Changing Life Chances *Race and Ethnicity*

*melting pot* - aimed at combating racial discrimination and ethnic inequality VS. *multiracial model* - assumes a salad bowl where everybody stays different but gets along just fine multiracial model tends to be better; encourages a positive governmental emphasis on diversity assimilation model assumes that distinctions of race and ethnicity will eventually be wiped out by intermarriage US has historically fluctuated somewhere between those two extremes race and ethnicity are important issues but are not easy to measure because they aren't easy to define

Changing Life Chances *Race and Ethnicity - Race and Ethnicity in the United States*

2010: - 97% said they belonged to only one racial category - 64% were white in 2000, people were able to choose more than one racial category on the census major racial categories: - White - Black/African American - Native American or Alaska Native - Asian - Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander - Hispanic or Latino - other majority of Hispanics are from Mexico - discriminated against less than blacks blacks used to be the largest minority group in the US, but by 2005 Hispanics became the largest the most-often-recorded ancestry in 2010 was German (15%), then Irish (11%), English, American, and Italian

Countries that Allow Gay Marriage

Argentina (2010) England / Wales (2013) New Zealand (2013) South Africa (2006) Belgium (2003) France (2013) Norway (2009) Spain (2005) Brazil (2013) Iceland (2010) Portugal (2010) Sweden (2009) Canada (2005) The Netherlands (2000) Scotland (2014) Uruguay (2013) Denmark (2012) countries Where gay marriage is legal in some jurisdictions: Mexico (2009) United States (2003)

Changing Life Chances *Race and Ethnicity - Ethnicity in Canada and Mexico*

Canada is multiracial, multiethnic, and officially bilingual "racial minority" in the US = "visible minority" in Canada - most populous group was South Asians (mostly Indians), then Chinese and African Canadian is the most populous ethnicity another major identifier is language - English and French - became a divisive issue in the 1990s; the French speakers wanted to secede from the English speakers - the controversy over language in Canada (still present today) underscores the power of society to turn any population characteristic into a sign of difference, from which prejudice and discrimination often follow language is also an issue in Mexico - lowest stratum of society tends to be occupied by those who speak an indigenous language, rather than Spanish

What is the Family and Household Transition? *Defining Family Demography and Life Chances* Family

a group of people who are related to each other by birth, marriage, or adoption a "kinship" unit in virtually every human society, people have organized their lives around a family unit the changes that occur in the broader population mainly occur within the context of the family unit share a sense of social bonding - the mutual acceptance of reciprocal rights and obligations, and of responsibility for each other's well-being additionally describe a family in terms of: *geographic location* - where you are in the world will influence the kinds of social, cultural, economic, and physical resources that will be available to the family *social location* - where it is positioned in the local social system - that standing will influence the family's access to whatever local resources exist on which the family can draw *social structure* - the number of people within the family, their age and gender, and their relationship to each other

What is the Family and Household Transition? *Defining Family Demography and Life Chances* Housing Unit

a house, apartment, mobile home or trailer, group of rooms (or even a single room if occupied as a separate living quarters) intended for occupancy as a separate living quarters people who share a housing unit are said to have formed a *household*

What is the Family and Household Transition? *Defining Family Demography and Life Chances* Family Household

a household in which the *householder* is living with one or more persons related to her or him by birth, marriage, or adoption a housing or residential unit occupied by people who are related to one another

Changing Life Chances *Poverty* Poverty Index

a measure of need that in the US is based on the premise that one third of a poor family's income is spent on food calculated as the cost of an economy food plan multiplied by three since 1964, it has increased at the same rate as the consumer price index

What is the Family and Household Transition? Gender Roles

a social role considered appropriate for males or females

Changing Life Chances *Race and Ethnicity - Race and Ethnicity in the United States* Racial Stratification

a socially constructed system that characterizes one or more group as being distinctly different being of African origin in the US is associated with: - higher probabilities of death - lower levels of education - lower levels of occupational status - lower incomes - higher levels of marital disruption these different life chances are thought to be due to racial stratification your membership in a group defined as different from the others then creates, in essence, a different social world for you than for those who are in other groups, and this affects your behavior and your life chances in society, because there is no genuine societal expectation that you will be assimilated into the rest of society

Two-Parent Families

although two-parent families are becoming less common in many parts of the world, they still constitute a majority of families around the globe children under age 18 are more likely to live in two-parent families than in other family forms in Asia and the Middle East, compared with other regions of the world children are more likely to live with one or no parent in the Americas, Europe, Oceania, and Sub-Saharan Africa than in other regions

Changing Life Chances *Religion* Pronatalist

an attitude, doctrine, or policy that favors a high birth rate also known as "populationist" Islam may not be any more pronatalist than other religions, but the way in which Islam structures societies may generate a type of religiosity that lowers status for women relative to men and indirectly promotes pronatalism

Proximate Determinants of Family and Household Changes *Widowhood*

as death has receded to older ages, the incidence of widowhood has steadily been pushed to the older years as well blacks are disadvantaged in this respect; African Americans are more likely to be either divorced or widowed than are other racial/ethnic groups at every age

Changing Life Chances *Labor Force Participation*

as education increases, so does the chance of being in the labor force women are less likely to be in the labor force at any given time unemployment rates are strongly related to age - the older the age, the lower the rate - women tend to have lower rates of unemployment by far the biggest gain in employment over the past half century has been the movement of baby boom women, especially married women, into the labor market

Changing Life Chances *Wealth*

as people obtain and build assets, they create wealth measured as *net worth:* difference between the value of assets and the money owed on those assets average net worth of Americans in 2011 was $69,000/household - 1 in 5 households had negative or zero net worth marriage is an important ingredient in accumulating wealth - highest level of net worth occurs among older married-couple households rank of wealth by race/ethnicity: white Asian Hispanics blacks - some of this is due to differences in the age structure

Proximate Determinants of Family and Household Changes *the Combination of These Determinants*

as the demographic transition unfolds, then, we are finding that people are waiting longer to marry, although often cohabiting in the meantime, and when they do marry, their marriage is more likely to end in divorce than widowhood

What is the Family and Household Transition? *Defining Family Demography and Life Chances* Nuclear Family

at least one parent and his/her/their children

Cohabitation in the US: in 1970

average age at marriage for women was about 20 number of cohabiting couples was 500,000 ratio of cohabiting to married couples was 1 to 100

Cohabitation in the US: in 2009:

average age at marriage for women was about 25 number of cohabiting couples was 6.7 million ratio of cohabiting to married couples had jumped to 12 per 100

Changing Life Chances *Education*

becoming educated is probably the most dramatic and significant change you can introduce into your life although, advanced education is relatively recent in American society (past 75 years) the world as a whole has been experiencing an increasing equalization of education among males and females--an increasing component in raising the global status of women and, in its turn, encouraging smaller family sizes women generally have higher college completion rates in countries where women's status has been notably low, there have been notable improvements in the ratio of girls to boys attending school often in LDRs, education is a male right education alters your worldview and influences nearly aspect of your demographic behavior generally: the more educated a woman is, the less children she'll have education also has implications for the marriage market in the US - "educational homogamy" - people want to marry someone with similar levels of education - a result of increasing gender equity more education = higher income - but, women still earn significantly less than men at every educational level

Childbearing Rates around the World

childbearing rates are declining worldwide the highest fertility rates are in Sub-Saharan Africa moderate rates of fertility (2.1-3.1) are found in the Middle East, and levels of fertility that are sufficient to replace a country's population in the next generation (about 2.1) are found in the Americas and Oceania below replacement-level fertility is found in East Asia and Europe

Proximate Determinants of Family and Household Changes *Childlessness*

childlessness has been slowly but steadily increasing (19% in 2010) women/couples are more frequently choosing to be childless - some may have "drifted" toward childlessness by continually postponing the first child, which also may involve postponing marriage

Consequences of Divorce for Children

children can benefit from divorce in some situations- high conflict families divorce can have little effect on children in other situations divorce can be negative because of a reduction in household income, loss of seeing father consequences can last through adulthood

Proximate Determinants of Family and Household Changes

delays in marriage - young people leaving their parents' home have fewer children when they do marry but they may cohabit in the meantime they are also more likely than in the past to bear children outside of marriage when they do marry, their marriage is more likely to end in divorce than in widowhood greater survivability of women over men has increased the incidence of widowhood smaller number of children in each family means that a much shorter period of time in each parent's life is devoted to activities directly related to childbearing

What are fundamental factors for family and household change?

demographic causes lower mortality and longer life expectancy non-demographic causes modernization religion, culture, and social norms women's education and participation in work force economic environment

Changing Life Chances *Labor Force Participation - Labor Force Gender Equality*

during WWII, the particular combination of demographic and economic circumstances arose to provide the leading edge of a shift toward labor force equality of males and females with men off to war, immigration pretty much banned, women were called into the labor force, especially married women, even more specifically married women with children biggest increase in labor force participation between 1940 and 1950 coming from women between ages 45 and 54 - mothers during the Depression (sacrificing familial wants and working instead) labor force women actually declined after WWII currently, the number and proportion of American women in the labor force and earning independent incomes has increased substantially

What is the Family and Household Transition? *Defining Family Demography and Life Chances* Extended Family

family members beyond the nuclear family appear to be common in Asia, the Middle East, South America, and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not in other regions of the world.

What's known about gay and lesbian families?

family often includes fictive kin (friends, co-parents, extended family etc.) spouses more likely to share egalitarian gender attitudes children - positive development: psychologically, intellectually and emotionally - more tolerant of diversity sexual orientation of parent does not have much of an effect on sexual orientation of child

Non-Marital Childbearing Rates around the World

given the decline in marriage rates, childbearing outside of marriage—or non-marital childbearing—is increasing in many regions the highest rates of non-marital childbearing are found in South America and Europe, paralleling increases in cohabitation moderate rates found in North America and Oceania varied rates found in Sub-Saharan Africa the lowest rates found in Asia and the Middle East

Cohabitation Trends

growing acceptance half of all couples cohabit prior to marriage 40% of children before 16 will live in cohabiting family higher rate of cohabitation after divorce (next union)

Changing Life Chances *Income - Differential Income by Gender*

history of discriminating against women in the labor market in terms of what kinds of jobs they are hired for and what pay they receive data suggests that the gap in status may be narrowing for young people, at least in the US economic improvement for households has required that two-earner households become the norm, and this has certainly contributed to the delay in marriage and the rise in divorce--all of which will tend to lower middle-class incomes family income has been steadily rising since the 1950s

Divorce Statistics

in the U.S. in 1857, there was a 27% chance that a husband aged 25 and a wife aged 22 would both be alive when the wife reached 65 for couples marrying in the early 21st century, the chances have risen to 60% 5% of marriages contracted in 1867 ended in divorce it is estimated that half the marriages contracted since the 1970s will end in divorce

Does Marriage Matter? Current Cultural Model

in the richer nations, self-fulfillment and individual autonomy are the most important values in life and serve to justify scrapping a marriage if women are approaching the level of economic independence previously reserved for men, perhaps the value of marriage has been permanently eroded, and marriage will (or has) become only one option among many from which people may reasonably choose one of the complaints about marriage often registered by women is that the move toward gender equality in the division of labor in the formal marketplace has not necessarily been translated into equity in the division of labor within the household

Benefits of Marriage

married couples have higher household income married couples save more of their income married couples have more wealth married men and women live longer, and engage in fewer high-risk behaviors children are better off financially than those in a one-parent family children are less likely to drop out of school, less likely to have a teenage pregnancy, and less likely to be "idle" as a young adult than children in a one-parent family married couples have sex more often and derive greater satisfaction from it than the unmarried do

Changing Life Chances *Poverty*

more children, less income being a single mom significantly increases the risk of living below the poverty line we have poverty thresholds for different situations and households very few people in North America are poor in absolute terms--it is the relative deprivation that is socially and morally degrading globally, if a person earns less than $1.25/day, they are poor - 1 in 5 people meet these criteria - another 1 in those 5 only make about $2.00/day implies not only the lack of adequate income from any and all sources, but also the lack of any other assets from which a person might draw sustenance

Cohabitation or Marriage? Cohabitation

once deviant! intimate relationship for its own sake; lasts as long as both partners are satisfied new stage of marriage? replacement of marriage? family of choice: ties not biologically, legally related better than living alone? "drifting" into marriage? only option for many same sex couples - now many states recognize marriage

Changing Life Chances *Occupation*

one of the most defining aspects of a person's social identity in an industrialized society clue to education, income, and residence points to a person's social status and position in the social hierarchy provides information about what kind of behavior can be expected from you, as well as how others will be expected to behave toward you women are more likely to be in: - lower rungs of positions - service and sales occupations - white collar jobs men are more likely to be in: - blue collar jobs - production, transportation and material moving jobs three issues that the International Labour Organization sees as still needing considerable improvement in order to achieve gender equality in the workplace - the global glass ceiling - the gender pay gap - the sticky floor people holding the higher status occupations are more likely to think of themselves as having a career opposed to just a job, and they are apt to derive more intrinsic satisfaction from their work the kind of job you have, and the income you earn from it, will be your key to economic and social independence

Proximate Determinants of Family and Household Changes *Delayed Marriage Accompanied by Leaving the Parental Nest*

one of the most important mechanisms preventing women from achieving equality with men is early marriage when a girl marries at a young age, she is drawn into a life of childbearing and family-building that makes it difficult for her to contemplate other options in life this is why high fertility is so closely associated with low status for women - in these high-fertility societies, men tend to be much older than their wives, contributing to the "dominance" of the husband a decline in fertility is/was often achieved by a delay in marriage - especially 100 years ago when contraceptives weren't really available the age at marriage stayed relatively high for both males and females until WWII and the post-war baby boom, when it dropped quickly and bottomed out between 1950 and 1960 - thus, marriage rates spiked once the pill came out unintended pregnancies out of wedlock often were stigmatized and led to marriage a variety of social and economic conditions might discourage an early marriage: - male "provider" expectation delayed marriage typically meant that young people stayed with their parents in order to save enough money to get ahead financially and thus be able to afford marriage in the early post-WWII period, economic robustness meant that jobs were readily available for young people, allowing them to leave the parental home at an earlier age without an economic penalty and the age at marriage reached historic lows in the US and Europe

What is the Family and Household Transition? *Defining Family Demography and Life Chances* Non-family Household

one that includes people who live alone, or with non-family co-residents friends living together, a single householder who rents out rooms, etc. especially important to the concept of the family household is that the family part of it makes it a kinship unit while the household part of it makes it a consumption unit - when family members live in the same household some or all of them will be responsible for producing goods and services that are shared by, and for the mutual benefit of, the family members who live together

Changing Life Chances *Religion*

religion is closely linked to ethnicity while people can change their religious views, most don't sets people apart from one another and has historically been a common source of intergroup conflict throughout the world *religious plurality* two major themes regarding the relationship between religion and demography: - religion plays its most important role in the middle stage of the demographic transition - *religiosity* may be more important than religious belief Muslims are predicted to grow in population considerably, but their fertility tend to vary a lot

Changing Life Chances *Race and Ethnicity* Definitions

represent human differences with some type of physical manifestation that allows people to identify and be identified with a particular group *race* a group of people characterized by a more or less distinctive combination of inheritable physical traits *ethnicity* the ancestral origins of a particular group, typically manifested in certain kinds of attitudes and behaviors - essentially a geographic concept, based on a place with which you identify, similar to the concept of "ancestry" as measured by the US Census history of racism in the world suggests that anything that distinguishes you can, and probably will, be used against you

Non-Traditional Families

same-sex relationships and civil unions 3.1 million+ couples in US living in same-sex relationships 1 in 3 lesbian couples and 1 in 5 gay male couples live with children. many had children in "straight" marriages supporters of gay marriage (many political liberals and conservatives) say life-long relationships are good for individuals and society - denying marriage rights is discriminatory those who oppose gay marriage do so primarily for traditional /religious reasons

Women in the Labor Force

since 1940, the rates of labor force participation have risen for women, while declining for men in 1950 there were 29 female, year-round, full-time workers per 100 men; that had increased to 70 by 2000 women represent 50% of all workers, but they are still concentrated in administrative support, sales, and service occupations

Does Marriage Matter?

societies tend to pay particular attention to the type of household in which children are growing up familial resources play a role throughout each person's life, but they are especially crucial when you are a child institutions of marriage and family started to show signs because: - decline in traditional and religious authority - diffusion of an ethos of rationality and individualism - universal education of both sexes - the increasing equality of women - increasing survival of children - emergence of a consumer-oriented culture that is increasingly aimed at maximizing personal gratification these changes have followed the changes in household structure

What is the Family and Household Transition? *Defining Family Demography and Life Chances* Ascribed Characteristics

sociodemographic characteristics such as sex or gender, race, and ethnicity that we are born with and over which we have essentially no control virtually every society uses such identifiable human attributes to the advantage of some people and the disadvantage of others

Changing Life Chances *Wealth* Asset

something that retains value or has the potential to increase in value over time - homes - jewelry - stocks mutual funds - savings accounts - properties - business ownerships

Changing Life Chances of Women

the changes that have brought about the family and household shifts have also dramatically altered what women can do with their lives, and that transforms the rest of society - increases in education - increases in labor force participation - increases in occupational status - increases in income - reduction in poverty Increase in wealth

Changing Life Chances *Religion* Religiosity

the strength at which one adheres to religious beliefs the higher the religiosity, the more children tend to be had - ultra-orthodox Jews lower religiosity = less children although, Muslims with high religiosity tend to have more children than more religious people from other religions the more religious, the more traditional the values, the more oppressed are women, the more children tend to come about

Proximate Determinants of Family and Household Changes *Nonmarital Childbearing*

the delay in marriage accompanied by high rates of premarital sexual activity means that the US and some other low-fertility nations have been experiencing an increase in the proportion of nonmarital births two ways to look at these data: - looks at the percentage of births in a given demographic category that are taking place outside of marriage --- certain groups have stood out for many years: ----- to women younger than 24 -------- non-use of contraception and the increasing lack of local access to abortion ----- to African American women (2/3 of births) - asks which groups of women are having the greatest number of nonmarital births --- gives an entirely different perception --- in this view, only 26% of nonmarital births happened to African American women data such as these have fueled enormous public debate about the social cost of nonmarital births - welfare benefits - deprivations suffered by fatherless children - have been interpreted as signs of imminent cultural decay a significant fraction of children born to unmarried women are nonetheless in a two-parent family, albeit in one in which the parents are cohabiting, not married

What is the Family and Household Transition? *Gender Equity and the Empowerment of Women*

the demographic transition creates conditions under which gender equity is more likely to develop the combination of longer life and lower fertility, even if achieved in an environment in which women are still oppressed, opens the eyes of society--including women themselves--to the fact that women are in a position to contribute in the same way that men do when not burdened by full-time parenting responsibility at no time in human history has there been a good justification for the domination of women by men, but the demographic conditions that prevailed for most of human history did at least facilitate that domination

Changing Life Chances *Religion* Religious Plurality

the existence of two or more religious groups side by side in society without one group dominating the other America has a history of religious pluralism - Protestant vs. Catholic --- Catholics traditionally used to always have more kids than Protestants, but then at the end of the baby boom, Catholics started using modern contraceptives

What is the Family and Household Transition?

the increasing diversity all over the world in family and household structure occasioned by people living longer, with fewer child born, increasingly in urban settings, and subject to higher standards of living household no longer depend on marriage for their creation, nor do they depend on death to dissolve them, and children are encountered in a wide array of household and living arrangements demographic transition promotes a diversity of family and household types because: - people are living longer, which means that they are more likely to be widowed, more likely to tire of the current spouse and seek divorce, and less likely to feel pressure to marry early and begin childbearing - the latter pressure is relieve by the decline in both mortality and fertility, which means that women in particular, do not need to begin childbearing at such a young age, and both men and women have many years of life after the children are grown (space and stop before older ages) - an increasingly urban population is presented with many acceptable lifestyle options besides marriage and family building; populations have options besides marriage and family-building - potentially higher standards of living amidst rising inequality --- family change reflects the demographic transition

Changing Life Chances

the leading explanations for the shift in household structure in Western nations combine elements of the *demographic transition perspective* - changing demographic conditions + rise in women's status - delayed marriage + more education - more women working + more economic freedom for women with the *life course perspective* - women who have grown up in a different demographic and social milieu have the potential to generate change in society

What is the Family and Household Transition? *Defining Family Demography and Life Chances* Householder

the person in whose name the house is owned or rented sometimes called the head of household

What is the Family and Household Transition? Life Chances

the probability of having a particular set of demographic characteristics, such as having a high-prestige job, lots of money, a stable marriage or not marrying at all, a small family or no family at all characteristics that influence how your life will turn out, including: - education - labor force participation, occupation, and income these all in turn affect *gender roles* race, ethnicity, and religion all mediate the impact of life chances in every human society

Changing Life Chances *Labor Force Participation - Household Economics*

the rises in women's employment opportunities and earning power have reduced the benefits of marriage and made divorce and single life more attractive the benefits of marriage for women have shifted from being largely economic to be more related to the investment in children in most social systems, people who can take care of themselves and have enough money to be self-reliant have higher status and greater freedom than those who depend economically on others a pecking order also seems to exist among those who are economically independent, with high incomes being associated with higher status

Proximate Determinants of Family and Household Changes *Cohabitation*

the sharing of a household by unmarried people who have a sexual relationship the delay in marriage has not necessarily meant that young people have been avoiding a family-like situation, nor that they have necessarily avoiding having children out of wedlock has become a stepping-stone to marriage for many, as well as a step back from marriage after a divorce for others

Changing Life Chances *Income - Differential Income by Race/Ethnicity* Structural Mobility

the situation in which most, if not all, people in an entire society experience an improvement in living levels, even though some people may be improving faster than others the only time in which one group can improve itself socially or economically without forcing an absolute sacrifice from another group

What is the Family and Household Transition? *Defining Family Demography and Life Chances* Family Demography

the study and analysis of family households: their formation, their change over time, and their dissolution families represent the "fusion" of people who were born into other families, and long before a family household dissolves, it is likely to have fissured into yet other families, as children born into the family grow up and leave the family household of their parents to create "fuse" their own households

What is the Family and Household Transition? *Defining Family Demography and Life Chances* Achieved Characteristics

those sociodemographic characteristics such as education, occupation, income, marital status, and labor force participation over which we have some degree of control

Changing Life Chances *Income - How did Canada come to have the richest middle class?*

three reasons proposed: public policy changes - tax breaks for the wealthy that benefit come groups more than others - low minimum wage - diminished public support for education labor market changes - an increasing mismatch between the demands of jobs and the skills of the labor force changes in demographic structure - increasing fraction of households headed by females

Changing Life Chances *Labor Force Participation - Working and Fertility*

working cuts down on fertility under normal circumstances ability of married women to work keeps fertility levels low, but also keeps it from dropping below-replacement levels most often, women will choose a career over family, if they have to make that choice