Chapter 11

One troubling aspect of sex differences in response to media violence is that while (males/females) ____ are more likely to become violent as a result of such exposure, (males/females) ____ may be more likely to become ____ of violence.

Males; Females; victims

David watches a tv infomercial about a new product guaranteed to promote weight loss. The audience members are smiling, laughing, and enthusiastic in their praise for the product. Later, David decides that he will buy the product, even though he initially viewed it with skepticism. David's buying decision is probably motivated by ____ ____ conditioning that occurred during exposure to the informercial.

Vicarious emotional

An important aspect of gaining information about a modeled behavior is the extent to which we ____ to the model.

Attend

Not only are you more likely to ____ to a model's behavior if you see the model's behavior reinforced, you are also more likely to _____ that behavior.

Attend; perform

From a classical conditioning perspective, smiles giggles, and laughs are ____ that can elicit ____ ____ ____ in observers.

CSs; vicarious emotional responses

Observational learning can be involved in both ____ and ___ conditioning.

Classical; operant

A second factor that influences whether we will perform a modeled behavior is the _____ we receive for performing the behavior.

Consequence

In general, the extent to which we follow instructions--as well as the specific instructions we choose to follow--depends largely on the ____ we have received for following instructions.

Consequences

Smiling, yawning, laughing, and orienting when others do so are all examples of _____.

Contagious behaviors

A big advantage of rules is that one (has to/does not have to) ___ directly experience a set of contingencies to behave appropriately with respect to those contingencies.

Does not have to

The stimuli involved in the classical conditioning aspect of observational learning are often (emotional/rational) ___ in nature.

Emotional

Children receive reinforcement for following instructions, both by their caretakers and by the fact that instructions can help them accomplish a task. As a result, most children acquire a (generalized/specific) ____ tendency to follow instructions.

Generalized

The result is that most children acquire a (generalized/localized) ____ tendency to follow instructions.

Generalized

After training her daughter to imitate the manner in which she eats food with a knife and fork, Ashley noticed her daughter spontaneously imitating the manner in which Ashely users a spoon to eat soup. This is an example of a process known as ___.

Generalized imitation

As an example of the above, experimental subjects who are told to press a button to earn money sometimes display a (scalloped pattern/high rate) of responding on an FI schedule of reinforcement, which is (the same as/different from) the type of responding typically shown on such schedules by animals.

High rate; different from

A third fact that influences our performance of a modeled behavior is our _____ of ____ for performing modeled behaviors.

History; reinforcement

A second problem with rule-governed behavior is that such behavior is sometimes surprisingly ____ to the actual contingencies of reinforcement in a particular setting.

Insensitive

A rule that also indicates who you should behavior with respect to a contingency is an _____.

Instruction

A rule that includes information about how we should respond is called a(n) _____.

Instruction

One problem with rule-governed behavior is that it is often (less/more) ____ efficient than behavior that has been shaped by natural _____.

Less; contingencies

In observational learning, the person performing a behavior is the ____; the person watching the behavior is the _____.

Model; observer

If a juvenile rate watches its mother eat a novel food, like chocolate chips, the young rate is (more/less/neither more nor less) ___ likely to try the chocolate chips.

More

If Claire observes her friend David laughing while enjoying a game of table tennis, she is (more/less) ___ likely to try the game herself. If Claire observes David frowning while he struggles over a math problem, she is (more/less) ___ likely to tackle the problem herself.

More; less

If a model receives reinforcement for performing a behavior, an observer is (more/less) ____ likely to perform the same behavior; if a model receives punishment for performing a behavior, an observer is (more/less) ____ likely to perform the same behavior.

More; less

Bandura demonstrated that children who observed violent models were (more/less) ____ likely to behave violently themselves. Further, the behavior of the observers was so (similar/dissimilar) ___ to that of the models, it could be considered ____.

More; similar; true imitation

Improving your golf game by watching a video of an excellent golf player if a form of ____ learning.

Observational

A _____ rule is a description of a contingency that we verbalize to ourselves to influence our own behavior.

Personal

____ ____ rules indicate the specific process by which a task is to be carried out. The formulation of such rules tends to (increase/decrease) ____ the likelihood that the task will be accomplished. Such rules have been called _____ ____.

Personal process; increase; implementation intentions

"I should sit straight while working on the computer if I wish to prevent back problems." This is an example of a(n) ____ rule (or self-_______).

Personal; instruction

Children learn to follow instructions because they are often (praised/ignored) ____ for following instructions. As well, they learn that following instructions is usually a (good/poor) ___ way to actually accomplish a task.

Praised; good

At the start of each day, Victoria carefully plans out her studying for the day, writing down what she will study as well as when and where she will study. Although she is not always successful in fulfilling these plans, she usually accomplishes most of what she sets out to do. Her success is likely due to the fact that she is making use of personal ____ rules that establish a(n) ____ boundary between acceptable and unacceptable patterns of behavior.

Process; bright

You are more likely to pay attention to a model whose behavior is (reinforced/not reinforced) ____, who is (similar/dissimilar) ____ to you, who is (admired/hated) ____, and who is a noted _____ in that activity.

Reinforced; similar; admired; authority

Behavior that is generated through exposure to rules is known as ____ ____ behavior.

Rule governed

Kent read somewhere that women are very attracted to a man who acts strong and dominant. Despite his efforts to appear strong and dominant, he is eventually dumped by every woman he meets. He nevertheless assumes that there must be something wrong with these women and persists in cultivating his heroic image. Kent's problem may reflect the fact that ____ behavior is sometimes surprisingly insensitive to the actual contingencies of reinforcement.

Rule-goverend

A(n) ____ can be defined as a verbal description of a contingency, while ____ behavior is the behavior that is generated by such verbal descriptions.

Rule; rule-governed

People who have been trained to display a high level of ____ correspondence can more effectively use personal rules (or self-instructions) to influence their behavior.

Say-do

A close match between what we say we are going to do and what we actually do at a later point in time is called a ____-____ ____.

Say-do correspondence

Tina tells herself each day that she will study, but she rarely succeeds in doing so. This illustrates a lack of ____ correspondence, using _____ rules to control her behavior.

Say-do; personal

The average person is unlikely to pay much attention to the precise moves of a grand master in chess simply because the average person does not have the ____ to benefit from that type of modeling.

Skill

Contagion of orienting responses is closely related to the process of ____ ____.

Stimulus enhancement

If a dog sees another dog eating at a particular location, it is more likely to visit that location later. This is an example of ____.

Stimulus enhancement

Joe has purchased a new computer and is trying to access the internet. He watches his friend Daryl as he accesses the internet and notices that he uses a couple of applications to do so. Joe opens those applications himself and then plays around with the settings until he figures it out. Joe's behavior is best described as an example of (true imitation/stimulus enhancement).

Stimulus enhancement

Longitudinal studies have demonstrated that exposure to violent media is ____ with violent behavior and criminality by others.

Strongly correlated

Longitudinal studies have shown that exposure to violent media is (strongly/weakly) ____ correlated with ____ and ____ behavior.

Strongly; aggression; antisocial

Jessica has just purchased a new computer and is trying to learn how to use the modem to access the internet. She asks her friend Jill to show her how to do it. Jill performs a complicated series of clicks and keystrokes, and Jessica watches closely . If Jessica then connects to the internet on her own using the same actions as Jill, Jessica's behavior is best described as an example of (true imitation/stimulus enhancement).

True imitation

The aggressive behavior of children in Bandura's studies was so similar to the model's behavior that it can be considered as an example of ___ ___.

True imitation

Copying a new behavior to achieve a particular result is (true imitation/stimulus enhancement) _____; having one's attention drawn to a particular place or thing is (true imitation/stimulus enhancement) _____.

True imitation; stimulus enhancement

You may watch cooking shows on tv and learn how to perform complex culinary feats. Translating that knowledge into a gourmet meal is the difference between ____ and _____.

acquisition; performance

Teachers often directly reinforce the behavior of paying _____, sometimes accompanied by the use of _____, such as "look at what I'm doing."

attention; prompting

In fear conditioning, the expressions of fear in other people may function as (CSs/USs/both CSs and USs)____ that elicit the same emotional response in ourselves.

both CSs and USs

When you repeat an off-color joke to you friends, they laugh heartily; but when you tell the same jokes to your parents, you are met with frowns. Due to ____ reinforcement, you soon learn to tell such jokes only when you are with your friends.

differential

Many animal species, when shown a sequence of actions designed to extract food from a locked box, (do/do not) ____ duplicate the sequence exactly. This suggests that few species exhibit true ____.

do not; imitation

Bandura determined that children were affected both by live violence and ____ violence. Thus, Bandura was the first to demonstrate the potential influence of the mass ___ on violent behavior.

filmed; media

Watching a model demonstrate violent behavior has been shown to lead to an (increase/decrease) ____ in violence by observers; observing the reinforcement of violent behavior further (increased/decreased) ____ the amount of violence displayed by observers.

increase; increased

Joel is very noncompliant. Chances are that he has received reinforcement for (following/not following) ____ instructions and/or punished for (following/not following) ____ instructions.

not following; following

If a young gorilla learns to gather tasty wild ginger plants by watching his mother forage, we can say that he has demonstrated ___ learning.

observational

Although children in Bandura's study exhibited somewhat less violent behavior if the model's behavior had been ____, their levels of violence increased again if they were later offered a(n)____ for behaving violently.

punished; incentive

When Salima's mom became ill with a neurological disorder, Salima was assigned the task of giving her a daily massage to loosen up her tense muscles. By contrast, Byron has taken several massage workshops. Interestingly, Byron is much less skillful at massage than Salima, which may reflect the fact that ___ behavior is sometimes less efficient than behavior that has been shaped through direct exposure to natural____.

rule-governed; contingencies

The problem with the media giving equal air time to those who are (convinced/skeptical) ____ about the effects of media violence on violent behavior is that the public is then misled into thinking that the evidence for such effects is (stronger/weaker) ____ than it actually is.

skeptical; weaker

Directing a person's or animal's attention to an object or place is called _____; duplicating the actions of a model to obtain a goal is called ____.

stimulus enhancement; true imitation

A rule can be defined as a ___ ___ of a ____.

verbal description; contingency

Exposure to violent media may increase observers' violent behavior; it may also make some observers more likely to become ____ of violence. This is especially likely with (males/females) ___.

victims; females

Rules are extremely useful in that they allow us to learn about appropriate patterns of behavior in a setting (with/without) ____ direct exposure to the contingencies operating in that setting.

without