Chapter 11

Hugo Munsterberg (1863-1916)

Stressed the application of psychological principles in such areas as clinical, forensic, and industrial psychology. In so doing, Munsterberg created applied psychology.

Stream of consciousness

Term for the way James thought the mind worked. James described the mind as consisting of an ever-changing stream of interrelated, purposive thoughts rather than static elements that could be isolated from one another, as the structuralists had suggested.

Forensic psychology

The application of psychological principles to legal matters. Munsterberg is considered the first forensic psychologist.

Industrial psychology

The application of psychological principles to such matters as personnel selection; increasing employee productivity; equipment design; and marketing, advertising, and packaging of products. Munsterberg is usually considered the first industrial psychologist.

Pragmatism

The belief that usefulness is the best criterion for determining the validity of an idea.

Dynamic psychology

The brand of psychology suggested by Woodworth that stressed the internal variales that motivate organisms to act.

Puzzle box

The experimental chamber Thorndike used for systematically studying animal behavior.

William James (1842-1910)

Was instrumental in the founding of functionalistic psychology. James emphasized the function of both consciousness and behavior. For him the only valid criterion for evaluating a theory, thought, or act is whether it works. In keeping with his pragmatism, he claimed that psychology needs to employ both scientific and nonscientific procedures. Similarly, on the individual level, sometimes one must believe in free will and at other times in determinism.

Functionalism

Under the influence of Darwin, the school of functionalism stressed the role of consciousness and behavior in adapting to the environment.

James Rowland Angell (1869-1949)

As president of the American Psychological Association and as chairman of the psychology department at the University of Chicago for 25 years, did much to promote functionalism.

John Dewey (1859-1952)

A key person in the development of functionalism. Some mark the formal beginning of the school of functionalism with the 1896 publication of Dewey's article "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology."

Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)

First woman to attain a doctorate in psychology and second female president of the APA (1921). She made significant contributions to comparative psychology by studying animal behavior under controlled conditions before inferring the mental attributes necessary to explain the observed behavior.

Self-esteem

According to James, how a person feels about himself or herself based on the ration of successes to attempts. One can increase self-esteem either by accomplishing more or attempting less.

Self as knower

According to James, the pure ego that accounts for a person's awareness of his or her empirical self.

Empirical self

According to James, the self that consists of everything a person can call his or her own. The empirical self consists of the material self (all of one's material possessions), the social self (one's self as known by others), and the spiritual self (all of which a person is conscious).

Ideo-motor theory of behavior

According, to James, ideas cause behavior, and thus we can control our behavior by controlling our ideas.

Carol George Lange (1834-1900)

Along with James, proposed the theory that a person's emotional experience follows his or her behavior.

Kenneth Bancroft Clark (1914-2005)

Along with his colleagues, conducted research that demonstrated the negative effects of segregation of children. A portion of this research was cited in the 1954 Supreme Court decision that ended the legal basis for segregated education in the United States. Clark went on to become the first African American president of the APA in 1970.

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)

Although satisfying all the requirements for a PhD at Harvard, she was denied the degree because she was a woman. In spite of such restrictions, Calkins made significant contributions to the study of verbal learning and memory and to self-psychology. Her many honors included being elected the first female president of the American Psychological Association in 1905.

Conwy Lloyd Morgan (1852-1936)

An early comparative psychologist who believed that there is a gradation of consciousness among animal species. To infer the cognitive processes used by various animals, he observed their naturally occurring behavior.

Harvey Carr (1873-1954)

An early functionalistic psychologist at the University of Chicago.

Robert Sessions Woodworth (1869-1962)

An influential functionalist at Columbia University who emphasized the role of motivation in behavior.

Adaptive act

Carr's term for a unit of behavior with three characteristics: a need, an environmental setting, and a response that satisfied the need.

James Mark Baldwin (1861-1934)

Founded several psychology programs, including the first in Canada. Did important early work in social psychology, cognitive development, and linking psychology with evolution. He served as APA president, but was disgraced by scandal.

Habits

Those learned patterns of behavior that James and others believed were vital for the functioning of society.

Granville Stanley Hall (1844-1924)

Created the first U.S. experimental psychology laboratory, founded and became the first president of the American Psychological Association, and invited Freud to Clark University to give a series of lectures. Hall thus helped psychoanalysis receive international recognition. Many of the beliefs contained in his two-volume book on adolescence are now considered incorrect. Nonetheless, that work is currently seen as an important pioneering effort in educational, child, and adolescent psychology and in parent education and child welfare programs.

Recapitulation theory

Hall's contention that all stages of human evolution are reflected in the life of an individual.

Francis Cecil Sumner (1895-1954)

In 1920, under the supervision of Hall, became the first African American to obtain a PhD in psychology. Later, under Sumner's leadership, Howard University became a highly influential training center for African American psychologists.

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)

Marks the transition between the schools of functionalism and behaviorism. Thorndike concluded from his objective animal research that learning occurs gradually, occurs independent of consciousness, and is the same for all mammals. His final theory of learning was that practice alone has no effect on an association (neural bond) and that positive consequences strengthen an association but negative consequences do not weaken it.

Reciprocal antagonism

Munsterberg's method of treating mentally disturbed individuals, whereby he would strengthen thoughts antagonistic to those causing a problem.

George John Romanes (1848-1894)

One of the first to follow Darwin's lead and study animal behavior. Romanes's research was very subjective, however, and relied heavily on anecdotal evidence.

Applied psychology

Psychology that is useful in solving practical problems. The structuralists opposed such practicality, but Munsterberg and, later, the functionalists emphasized it.

James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944)

Represented functionalistic psychology at Columbia University. He did much to promote applied psychology.

Morgan's canon

The insistence that explanations of animal behavior be kept as simple as possible. One should never attribute higher mental activities to an animal if lower mental activities are adequate to explain its behavior.

Paired-associate technique

The still widely used method of investigating verbal learning invented by Calkins. Pairs of stimulus material are first presented to subjects and then, after several exposures, only one member of the pair is presented and the subject is asked to recall the second.

Connectionism

The term often used to describe Thorndike's theory of learning because of its concern with the neural bonds or connections that associate sense impressions and impulses to action.

James-Lange theory of emotion

The theory that people first respond and then have an emotional experience. For example, we run first, and then we are frightened. An implication of the theory is that we should act according to the way we want to feel.

Law of effect

Thorndike's contention that reward strengthens associations, whereas punishment weakens them. Later, Thorndike revised the law to state that reward strengthens associations, but punishment has no effect on them.

Identical elements theory of transfer

Thorndike's contention that the extend to which learning transfers from one situation to another is determined by the similarity between the two situations.

Law of exercise

Thorndike's contention that the strength of an association varied with the frequency of the association's use. Thorndike discarded this law in 1929.