Chapter 11 - Physical Development

How many children in the USA are overweight?

-16% to 25% of children and adolescents in US are overweight or obese -Most overweight children become overweight adults -Overweight children and adolescents -Often are rejected by peers -Perform poorly in sports -Have poorer body images than children of normal weight -At greater risk for physical health problems

Childhood Asthma

-Allergy-type respiratory disease -Spasms in the lungs, difficulty breathing, wheezing, coughing, tightness in chest -More common in affluent countries, but more serious in poorer nations Risk factors of developing asthma: -Previous respiratory infections and skin irritations -Family history of asthma -Lower SES It is treated with nasal corticosteroids or other medicines to block reaction to allergens and open airways. Parents are advised to remove dust, dander, mites, and other sources of respiratory irritation from the home.

What are the gender similarities and differences in motor development?

-Boys and girls perform similarly in most motor activities -Boys show slightly greater overall strength, especially forearm strength -Girls show somewhat greater limb coordination and overall flexibility -Boys more likely to be encouraged in athletics -Physical activity decreases with age in both sexes

What are learning disabilities?

-Characterized by inadequate development of specific academic, language, and speech skills -Problems with reading, math, writing -Difficulties with speaking or understanding speech -Problems with motor coordination -Performs below expectations for age and intelligence -Without evidence of other handicaps -Usually persists throughout life

What are the barriers that prevent parents from obtaining treatment for ADHD for their children?

-Concern that the child will be labeled. -Lack of ADHD information. -Concern that the treatment will be based on the child's ethnic or racial background. -Language barriers between parent or child and health care professional. -Cost of treatment.

Characteristics of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

-Developmentally inappropriate or excessive inattention -Hyperactivity -Impulsivity -Onset occurs by age 7 -Behaviors must persist for at least 6 months -Impairs function at school -Difficulty getting along with others -More common in boys than girls -Some argue ADHD is over-diagnosed and overmedicated

What can be done to improve physical fitness?

-Encouragement to exercise -Modelling of physical activity and exercise -Engage in family outdoor activities that promote fitness -Reduce time spent watching television -Encourage outdoor play after school -Do not assume team sports provides sufficient exercise. Many team sports involve long periods of inactivity.

What are the origins of dyslexia?

-Genetic factors -Parent or sibling with dyslexia -Neurological problems -"Faulty wiring" or circulation problems in left hemisphere -Angular gyrus: difficulty associating letters with sounds -Phonological processing problems -Double-deficit hypothesis: deficits in phonological processing and in naming speed

What are some of the causes leading to childhood obesity?

-Heredity. -High sugar beverages, unhealthy food at school, dietary variations in day cares, lack of exercise. -Low income communities with few resources for exercise and play. -Limited access to healthy food, affordable food, overly available fattening foods and drinks, large portion sizing. -Lack of breastfeeding. -Television and media (couch-potato). -Amount of fat cells (adipose tissue); which can lead to increased feelings of hunger. -Environmental influences such as family and peers. Overweight parents who model poor behaviour, or who encourage overeating and keep high calorie snacks inside the home. -TV consumption. -Stress and emotional reactions can prompt kids to eat such as divorce, fighting inside the home, or the birth of a sibling. -Anxiety and depression.

How does gross motor skills develop during middle childhood?

-Increase in balance, coordination, and strength -Connections between cerebellum and cortex become myelinated -Reaction time gradually improves

How does vision and hearing develop during middle childhood?

-Myopia -25% of U.S. children in middle childhood -Corrective lenses or contact lenses -Ear Infections -Number of children affected decreases during middle childhood -Ear infections can lead to hearing loss and difficulty acquiring language

What are the protective factors of asthma?

-Nasal steroids during pregnancy, breastfeeding, day-care attendance, and pets.

What are the types of disorders that affect learning?

-Overall intellectual functioning. -Learning disabilities such as dyslexia, dyscalculia and written expression. -Speech disorders such as articulation, voice and fluency. -Physical disabilities such as visual and hearing impairment and paralysis. -Social and emotional disorders such as ADHD, autism spectrum and conduct disorders, and childhood depression and anxiety.

What are the childhood obesity statistics in the USA?

-The prevalence of obesity in children has doubled in the past 20 years. -Latin American boys are significantly more likely than European American boys to be overweight. -African American girls are significantly more likely than European American girls to be overweight. -Obese children are more likely to have high blood pressure and cholesterol in childhood and adulthood. -They are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes, respiratory problems, asthma, joint problems, fatty liver disease, gallstones, acid reflux, hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis), and ovarian disorders. -Can accelerate the development of heart disease which can lead to heart attacks or strokes in adulthood. -It may reduce life expectancy. -They are often rejected by peers or bullied. -They perform poorly in sports and are less popular as they become adolescents due to the pressure to be sexually attractive. -They have poorer body images and many are depressed or anxious. -The majority of overweight children become overweight adults. In contrast, only 40% of boys and 20% of girls who are normal weight become overweight adults.

What children are at higher risk for asthma?

-Those who had respiratory infections and skin irritations (dermatitis) are at higher risk. -Male gender, administration of oxygen after birth, prescriptions of antibiotics during first 6 months, asthma in the father or siblings, maternal asthma during pregnancy, use of antibiotics during pregnancy, and maternal reception of public assistance. The risk factors are previous respiratory or allergy problems, family history, lower socioeconomic status.

How does the influence of television have a threefold effect on children's weight and obesity?

1) Children consume snacks while watching TV. 2) TV bombards children with commercials for fatty foods. 3) Its a sedentary activity. Children who watch a lot of TV are less physically active overall.

How many children in the USA are overweight or obese?

16-25% of children and adolescents.

What is the prevalence of asthma worldwide?

2.4% in India, 37.6% in Costa Rica for 6-7 year olds, .8% in Tibet, 32.6% in Wellington New Zealand for 13-14 year olds. Most likely to be found in affluent nations but more serious in poorer nations. It is more likely to be lethal in poor nations and is found among poor Americans.

How many US children don't meet the standards for fitness by the Council on Fitness, Sports and Nutrition?

2/3

How many children are myopic during middle childhood?

25% It increases in young adulthood when some 60% of the population has difficulty bringing distant objects into focus.

Stuttering

A disturbance in the ability to speak fluently with appropriate timing of speech sounds. The lack of normal fluency must be inappropriate for the person's age in order to justify the diagnosis. Usually begins between 2-7 years and affects 1 in 100 children. It is characterized by one or more of the following: a) Repetitions of sounds and syllables. b) Prolongations of certain sounds. c) Interjections of inappropriate sounds. d) Broken words: pauses occurring within a spoken word. e) Blocking of speech. f) Circumlocutions: substitutions of alternative words to avoid problematic words. g) Excess of physical tension when emitting words. h) Repetition of monosyllabic whole words (I-I-I am glad to meet you). It occurs in 3x more males as females. 80%+ of those who stutter overcome the problem without any treatment usually before age 16.

Learning Disabilities

A group of disorders characterized by inadequate development of specific academic, language and speech skills. Children with learning disabilities may have problems with math, writing, or reading. Some with articulating speech or understanding spoken language and some with motor coordination problems. They are considered to have a disability when they are performing below the level expected for their age and level of intelligence, and when there is no evidence of other handicaps like vision or hearing problems, intellectual disability or socioeconomic disadvantage. They frequently display other problems. They are more likely to have ADHD, and when mature more likely to develop schizophrenia. They don't communicate well with peers, have poorer social skills, show behaviour problems in the classroom and are more likely to experience emotional problems. For most children the problems persist through life. With early recognition and remediation, many can learn to overcome or compensate for the disability.

How much to boys and girls grow during their middle childhood years?

A little over 2 inches in height per year.

Growth Spurt

A period during which growth advances at a dramatically rapid rate compared with other periods. During these years children continue to become more slender and less stocky.

Dyslexia

A reading disorder characterized by problems such as letter reveals, and reduced comprehension (from the Greek roots "dys" meaning bad, and "lexikon" meaning of words.) A type of learning disability. Reading ability is substantially less than what one would expect considering the individual's age, level of intelligence and educational background. The reading difficulty interferes with scholastic achievements or daily living. If there is also a sensory or perceptual defect, making reading problems worse than expected. Runs in families; 25-65% of dyslexic children have a dyslexic parent; 40% have a dyslexic sibling. -Affects 5 to 17.5% of American children -More common in boys than girls Treatment in childhood - remediation; later in life - accommodation.

Eustachian Tube

A tube which runs down from the inner ear to the throat and elongates and narrows as children grow. As children grow, they get ear inflections because bacteria and fluids can't easily move from the throat to the ear.

Eye-Hand Coordination

Ability to coordinate fine movements using visual information.

What is the average gain in weight between the ages of 6 and 12?

About 5-7 pounds a year.

Why might some intelligent children with stimulating home environments have difficulty learning reading and math?

Academic performance can be affected by learning disabilities, disorders that involve problems in developing specific language, speech, or academic skills. For example, dyslexia is a learning disorder affecting reading that involves reversing letters, reduced comprehension, and slower reading. If children perform below the expected level for their age and intelligence, especially when other handicaps such as sensory problems or disadvantaged environments are not present, a learning disability is frequently considered responsible for this discrepancy.

How do gross motor skills develop during middle childhood?

By age 6 and 7 they can usually peddle and balance on a bike. By 8-10 they are showing increased balance, coordination, and strength that allows them to partake in gymnastics and team sports. Muscles grow stronger, and the pathways that connect the cerebellum to the cortex are becoming increasingly myelinated. There are some differences in sensorimotor abilities which appear to be inborn, but experience plays an essential role. An important factor is the child's reaction time which gradually improves (reaction time time decreases) with age from early childhood to approximately age 18.

Mixed Receptive/Expressive Language Disorder

Characterized by difficulties both understanding and producing speech. There may be difficulty understanding words or sentences. In some cases, children have trouble understanding certain word types (ex: words in large quantity like large, big, huge), spatial terms (ex: near or far) or sentence types (ex: sentences begin with the word unlike). Other cases are marked by difficulty understanding simple words or sentences.

Do children outgrow "baby fat?"

Although most parents often assume that heavy children will "outgrow" "baby fat", especially once they hit the growth spurt of adolescence, but it is not so. Most overweight children become overweight adults.

Asthma

An allergy type respiratory disorder characterized by spasms in the lungs, difficulty breathing, wheezing and often coughing (dry hacking), and a feeling of tightness in the chest that prevents the sufferer from getting enough air. It can be severe enough to disturb sleep and speech.

Reaction Time

An important factor in athletic performance. It is the amount time required to respond to a stimulus. Time it takes to initiate movement in response to a stimulus. It is basic to timing or adjustment, and involved in many responses to obstacles. It improves with age (decreases) until about age 18 and individual differences from child to child can be large. It begins to increase again in adult years. Adults can respond to a ball quicker than children and even some 75 year olds outperform kids.

How many children in the USA have dyslexia?

Approximately 5-17.5%. It is much more common in boys than girls.

Inhibition

Defined in different ways by different theorists. There is inhibition which is under executive control of the brain (cognitive neurological) and inhibition that is normally motivated by emotions such as anxiety and fear.

ADHD

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. A behaviour disorder characterized by excessive inattention, impulsiveness and hyperactivity.

Asperger's Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder characterized by impairments in socialization and stereotypic behavior, without language deficits.

Pervasive Developmental Disorder

Autism spectrum disorders,characterized by stereotypic behaviors and deficits in socialization and language.

What are the typical gross motor skills of a 7 year old?

Balancing on and peddling a bike.

What are the typical gross motor skills of a 10 year old?

Balancing on one foot for 15 seconds and can catch a fly ball.

Flexibility

Bending of the body across a normal range of motions.

When do children primarily lose their primary teeth?

Between the ages of 6-12. Adult permanent teeth grow in full size and can seem too large for the child's face until the facial bones catch up through the widening and lengthening of the face.

What are the gender similarities and differences in motor development during middle childhood?

Boys and girls perform similarly in most motor activities throughout middle childhood. Boys show greater overall strength; specifically forearms. Girls show greater limb coordination and overall flexibility. At puberty, gender differences in motor performance favouring boys become progressively greater. The difference in motor performance is slight and and not great enough be attributed to anything biological. Boys are more likely to receive more encouragement, support and opportunities to participate in sports. Parents encourage more physical activity in boys than girls. By middle childhood boys are involved in longer more competitive games. They also engage in more vigorous activity. By puberty, boys begin to excel in running, long jumps, grip strength, and sit ups which is due to boys greater size and strength which is a biological advantage. Physical activity decreases with age between middle childhood and adolescence in both genders.

When do boys begin to surpass girls in height and weight?

Boys are slightly taller and heavier than girls until around 9 or 10 years of age when girls on average begin their adolescent growth spurt, a period of rapid change in height and weight. Girls then surpass boys until around ages 13 or 14 when boys are reaching the peak of their own growth spurt.

When do boys and girls surpass each other during the height/weight growth curve?

Boys continue to be slightly heavier and taller than girls through 9-10 years of age. At this age girls then begin their growth spurt surpassing boys until around 13-14 years old. Then, during this time boys begin to approach the peak of their adolescent growth spurt and become taller and heavier than girls. Boys and girls both experience a similar steady gain in muscular strength and height/weight. The relative proportion of muscle and fatty tissue is similar. It changes at age 11, when boys develop more muscle tissue and girls more fatty tissue.

How do fine motor skills develop during middle childhood?

By 6-7 years, children can usually tie their shoelaces, hold pens/pencils like adults, fasten buttons, zip zippers, brush teeth, wash themselves, use utensils, chopsticks, etc. Tie shoes and hold pencils as adults do Abilities to dress and maintain hygiene functions develop.

What are the connections between nutrition and growth?

Children in middle childhood need to eat more (about 2,000 calories per day) to support the increased body weight and activity level. Issues in nutrition during middle childhood: -Food offered to children in school -Increased food portions -Fast food restaurants -Relationship between social class and nutrition

Special Education Programs

Created to meet the needs of schoolchildren who have mild to moderate disorders. These include learning disabilities, communication disorders, emotional disturbance, mild intellectual deficiency and physical disabilities such as blindness, deafness or paralysis.

What are the biological origins of dyslexia?

Current views focus on the ways in which sensory and neurological problems contribute to reading problems. Genetic factors can create neurological problems. They can involve faulty wiring or circulation problems in the left hemisphere of the brain (typically involved in language functions) resulting in less oxygen. The angular gyres is located in the left hemisphere between the visual cortex and Wernicke's area. It translates visual information like written words into auditory information and sends it to Wernicke's area. Problems with the angular gyres may cause reading problems making it more difficult for the reader to associate letters with sounds. Other researchers have found evidence that brain abnormalities that pose a risk for schizophrenia also pose a risk for dyslexia. This suggests an overall vulnerability to cognitive deficits.

What was the difference found in daughters' weights when studying middle class and poverty line families?

Daughters living at the poverty line were fed diets high in fat and fast foods. Daughters living in middle class families had parents with more concern placed on physical activity for weight control. They also limited their daughters consumption of snacks and sugary beverages. They encouraged more water.

Exceptionality

Describes developmental difference without negative connotations.

Mathematics Disorder

Diagnosed in children who have sever deficiencies in arithmetic skills. They may have problems understanding basic math terms or operations like adding and subtracting; decoding math symbols like +, -, and =; or learning multiplication tables. It can be apparent in the 1st grade but often not recognized until 2nd or 3rd grades.

What are the typical gross motor skills of a 12 year old?

Displays awkwardness as result of asynchronous (not concurrent) bone and muscle development.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase the activity of the nervous system. Ex: Ritalin. Children given stimulants show increased attention span, improved cognitive and academic performance, and a reduction in disruptive, annoying and aggressive behaviours. Their use is controversial because some critics argue that they suppress gains in height in weight, don't contribute to academic gains and lose their effectiveness over time. It is also of concern that they are overused or misused in an attempt to control high activity levels that are normal of children.

What are the gender differences in motor activities in middle childhood?

During middle childhood, boys have slight edges in overall strength and in forearm strength, which helps with batting or throwing balls. Girls, though, have greater flexibility and limb coordination, which aids in such sports as gymnastics. Gender differences become greater at puberty and favor boys. Before puberty, boys may be more likely to be encouraged to participate in sports, and boys, compared to girls, may be more involved in competitive games in middle childhood. Pubertal increases in size and strength may give boys a biological advantage at that time, but environmental factors may also continue to play a role.

When does a child's brain go through its most dramatic growth?

During prenatal development and infancy.

Hyperactivity

Excessive restlessness and overactivity; one of the primary characteristics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Not to be confused with misbehaviour or with high activity levels that are normal during childhood.

What is information processing connected with?

Fluid reasoning.

How does the brain develop in middle childhood?

Frontal lobe - executive functions -Deployment of attention -Cognitive flexibility -Goal setting -Information processing -Fluid reasoning

What is the role of genetic factors in obesity?

Genetic factors likely have a role in obesity. Heredity may play a role in how quickly the body burns extra calories versus turning them into fat. The amount of adipose tissue, or fat cells, individuals have may also be affected by genetic factors. Children who have more fat cells may feel hungry sooner than those with fewer fat cells. One study supporting genetic factors found that identical twins tended to have the same body weight as adults regardless of whether they had been reared separately or together.

What are the typical gross motor skills of a 8 year old?

Good body balance.

What Patterns of Growth Occur in Middle Childhood?

Growth spurt; Height and Weight -Gain a little over 2 inches and 5 to 7 pounds per year -Boys are slightly heavier and taller than girls until 9 or 10 -About age 11, boys develop more muscle and girls more fatty tissue Significant individual deviations in height and weight; growing pains

What are executive functions?

Has several aspects; deployment of attention, cognitive flexibility, goal setting, and information processing.

Inclusion

Having students with disabilities educated in the community of those without disabilities.

What are the causes of being overweight?

Heredity: -Amount of fat cells -Hunger drive is connected with quantity of fat cells -More fat cells - feel hunger sooner Environmental Factors: -Obese parents may model poor dietary and exercise habits -Sedentary habits -TV watching encourages snacking, exposes children to commercials for food, and is low physical activity -Stressors and emotional reactions

What are the typical gross motor skills of a 6 year old?

Hops, jumps and climbing.

Naming Speed

Identifying letters.

Do students with disabilities fare better in classes for students with special needs or in classes with all children (mainstreaming)?

If children are placed in special-needs classes, they may be stigmatized by being segregated from other children; also teachers as well as the students themselves may have low expectations for children in these classes, expectations that become a self-fulfilling prophecy. However, mainstreaming can lead to problems for children with learning disabilities as well; particularly for lower-performing students, a regular classroom environment can be overwhelming.

When does a child's body weight double?

In middle childhood.

What are the behaviours connected with ADHD?

Inattention: -Easily distracted from tasks and activities. -Doesn't pay attention to instructions and details. -Does not complete work in class or homework. -Does not organize tasks and activities. -Loses pencils, books and homework assignments. Hyperactivity: -Fidgets when seated. -Walks around or leaves room during assignments or activities. -Sleeps restlessly. -Runs around persistently - like a motor. -Has difficulty playing quietly. -Excessive talking. Impulsiveness: -Acts first, thinks second. -Moves between activities without completion. -Calling out/Acting out. -Not taking turns/not waiting.

Coordination

Integrating motor movements with sensory information or other motor movements.

Phonological Processing

Interpreting sounds.

Expressive Language Disorder

Is impairment in the use of spoken language, such as slow vocabulary development, errors in tense, difficulty recalling words and problems producing sentences of appropriate length and complexity for their age. Kids who are affected may have phonological (articulation) disorder which compounds their speech problems.

How many children have ADHD?

It is quite common. The CDC diagnoses ADHD in approximately 11% of school age children and about twice as often in boys and girls. There is a 50% rise in incidence of diagnoses for ADHD between 2003 and 2013, and 2 or 3 children diagnosed with the disorder are placed on stimulants such as Ritalin and Adderall.

What is the treatment for dyslexia?

Remediation; highly structured exercises to help them become aware of how to blend sounds and form words. Ex: Identifying words that do or do not rhyme. Later in life the focus turns to accommodation over remediation. This involves extra time for tests or assignments.

What is the onset of ADHD?

It occurs by age 7.

What are the causes of ADHD?

It tends to run in families for both boys and girls with the disorder therefore there may be a genetic component. One genetic component might involve the manner in which children process the brain messengers dopamine and serotonin. It is found to coexist with other psychological disorders and problems, ranging from most commonly from oppositional defiant disorder and anxiety disorders to mood disorders and tics. Brain imaging studies found that the brain chemistry of children who have ADHD differs in certain respects from that of children who have ADHD plus other disorders such as mood disorders. In the 1970s it was thought to be caused by artificial food colourings and preservatives. Researchers suggest it is connected with failure to exercise adequate inhibitory processes - no ability to control or inhibit impulses that most children are capable of controlling. It is more likely to result from a lack of executive control but the precise nature of the control regarding neurological aspects is poorly understood. -Heredity -Coexists with other disorders -Anxiety, oppositional defiant disorder, mood disorders, ticks -Eliminating food coloring and preservatives yields conflicting results; may have small beneficial effect -Inefficient inhibitory processes -Lack of executive control in the brain

Which part of the brain is involved in language functions?

Left Hemisphere.

What is the function of the angular gyres?

Located in the left hemisphere between the visual cortex and Wernicke's area, it translates visual information into auditory information.

Balance

Maintaining equilibrium of the body when it is in various positions.

Disorder of Written Expression

Makes mistakes in spelling that exceed what one would expect considering the individual's age, level of intelligence and educational experiences. Makes errors in spelling, grammar and punctuation; shows difficulty organizing paragraphs and sentences. Shows anxiety and frustration when attempting to write; Ex: breaks pencils and tears up paperwork assignments. Typically concurrent with dyslexia. Grossly deficient writing skills. They generally become apparent about age 7 (2nd grade) although milder cases may not be recognized until age 10 (grade 5 or later).

Is it true that most Canadian children are physically fit?

No, Canadian children and youth spend nearly 2/3 of their waking hours being sedentary, according to Statistics Canada, 2007 - 2011.

Dyscalculia

Mathematic difficulty. (Calc - think calculator) Mathematical ability is substantially less than what one would expect considering the individual's age, level of intelligence, and educational background. The math problems interfere with the individual's scholastic achievement or daily living. If there is also a sensory or perceptual defect, the problems in mathematics are worse with it than one would expect.

What can ear infections lead to?

Migraines, hay fever, asthma, hearing loss and a difficulty acquiring language.

Are children in the USA physically fit?

Most children in the United States are not physically fit. Reasons for decline in fitness: -Watching television -More focus on sports than continuous exercise -Participation in sports declines after age 10

Down's Syndrome

Most common genetically based developmental disability caused in most cases by a third chromosome.

Do children tend to outgrow "baby fat" or does childhood obesity set a danger precedent for adolescent and adult life?

Most overweight children do not "outgrow" their weight problem. Rather, most children who are overweight become overweight adults whereas a smaller proportion, 40% of boys and 20% of girls, of normal-weight children become obese as adults.

What is the cause of stuttering?

Most researchers believe that genetic and environmental influences interact in producing stuttering. Brain scans reveal abnormal patterns of neural activity in the basal ganglia of the brain. It also appears to have an emotional component. They tend to be more emotionally reactive than non-stutterers. When faced with challenging or stressful situations, they become more upset or excited. Social anxiety or overly concerned with how others see them can contribute to the problem.

What does myopic mean?

Nearsighted

Are children who spend more time watching television more likely to become overweight?

One longitudinal study reported that children who, during the middle childhood years, watched at least 25 hours of television a week were more likely to become obese in adolescence. Children who watch more television may get less exercise, consume more snacks, and, since TV programming advertises high-caloric foods, these snacks may be high fat items like potato chips and candy.

Phonological Disorder

Persistent difficulty articulating the sounds of speech in the absence of defects in the oral speech mechanism or neurological impairment. Kids with the disorder may omit, substitute, or mispronounce certain sounds such as ch, f, l, r, sh, and th, which most children property articulate by the time they reach the early school years. It sounds like they are uttering "baby talk." Severe cases have problems articulating sounds usually mastered during preschool years: b, m, t, d, n, and h. Speech therapy is helpful and mild cases are usually resolved around age 8.

Communication Disorders

Persistent problems in understanding or producing language. They include expressive language disorder, mixed receptive/expressive language disorder, phonological disorder, and stuttering. Each interferes with academic or occupational functioning or the ability to communicate socially.

What do most researchers focus on today regarding dyslexic individuals?

Phonological processing. The ways in which they make, or do not make, sense of sounds. Some report evidence that dyslexic children have difficulty controlling eye movements. It has also been shown that dyslexic children don't discriminate sounds as accurately as other children. B's, D's and P's may be hard to tell apart creating confusion. There is also double-deficit hypothesis, which says they have neurologically based deficits in both phonological processing and naming speed. So they have trouble sounding out B's, D's and P's but it also takes them longer to name or identity the letter when they try.

Mainstreaming

Placing children with disabilities in classrooms of children without disabilities. Most students today with mild disabilities spend at least part of their school day in regular classrooms. The goals include providing broader educational opportunities for students with disabilities and fostering interactions with children without disabilities.

Agility

Quickness and accuracy of movements.

What are the environmental factors that occur in middle childhood which could be a factor for why boys excel in physical activity over girls?

Social acceptance. Tomboy behaviour in girls is less socially acceptable in girls when they enter adolescence. Resulting in girls being less interested in participating in athletic activities and less motivated to do well in the ones they already pursue. By age 12/13 they are less likely than boys to perceive themselves as competent and self-perception of competence predicts the extent of participation in sports. Physical activity becomes increasingly stereotyped by children as being masculine or feminine thus physical activity decreases with age in both genders.

Is hyperactivity related to chemical food additives?

Some have hypothesized that chemical additives in food contribute to hyperactivity. However, studies with children on the Feingold diet, which removes food additives, have not provided support for this position.

What are the pros and cons of mainstreaming?

Some studies indicate that children with disabilities may achieve more when they are mainstreamed while others suggest kids don't fare well in regular classrooms. Rather than inspiring children to greater achievements, the regular classrooms can be overwhelming.

Why might children lose their enthusiasm for sports in middle childhood?

Sometimes parents or coaches push children too hard, early, or quickly. If competition is stresses, children may feel frustrated or inferior, or get injured. Its important to let children process at their own pace.

What are the typical fine motor skills of a 8-9 year old?

Spacing words when writing, writes and prints accurately and neatly, copies a diamond shape correctly, can swing a hammer, sewing, knitting, and showing good hand-eye coordination.

How are communication disorders treated?

Specialized speech therapy or fluency training and with psychological counselling for anxiety or other emotional problems.

What are the gender similarities and differences in physical growth?

Steady gain in height and weight, increase in muscular strength for both girls and boys during early middle childhood. Relative proportion of muscle and fatty tissue is about the same. About age 11, boys develop more muscle tissue and females increase more fatty tissue; about age 10-13, girls are taller and heavier than boys; about 13, boys become taller and heavier than girls.

How do health professionals treat ADHD?

Stimulants increase that activity of the nervous system and are often used to treat hyperactive children. They are the most widespread treatment for ADHD. The reason they are prescribed is due to the rationale that the activity of the hyperactive child stems from the inability of the cerebral cortex to inhibit more primitive areas of the brain. The drugs block the reuptake (reabsorption) of two neurotransmitters in the brain (dopamine and noradrenaline. Keeping more of these neurotransmitters active has the effect of stimulating the cerebral cortex and facilitating cortical control of primitive areas of the brain. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy also shows promise. The approach attempts to increase the child's self control and problem solving abilities through modelling, role-playing, and self-instruction. Studies suggest that children fare better with medication while adolescents fare better with CBT. -Stimulants to block reuptake of dopamine and noradrenaline -Hyperactivity stems from inability of cerebral cortex to inhibit more primitive areas of the brain -Stimulants increase activity in the cerebral cortex -Children with ADHD on stimulants -Increased attention span, improved cognitive and academic performance -Reduction in disruptive, annoying, and aggressive behaviour The use of stimulants is controversial as they may suppress growth and lose effectiveness over time. Cognitive behavioral therapy is an alternative treatment. Focus on self-control and problem-solving abilities. Some children "outgrow" ADHD. At least two-thirds exhibit one or more symptoms in adolescence and adulthood.

Double-Deficit Hypothesis

The theory of dyslexia that suggests that dyslexic children have biological deficits in two areas: phonological processing (interpreting sounds) and naming speed (identifying letters such as b versus d, or w versus m.)

Why are stimulants used to treat children who are already hyperactive?

Stimulants, drugs that increase the nervous system's activity, such as Ritalin are the most common treatment for ADHD in children. This may seem paradoxical since these children are already overactive. These drugs, though, block the reabsorption of two of the brain's neurotransmitters that helps to inhibit and provide control over more primitive areas in the brain. Stimulants found in coffee, cola, and chocolate also seem to help children control their behavior. Stimulants help children increase their attention span and improve their academic performance. Critics, though, have argued that stimulants may result in decreased height and weight gain and may not be as effective after a period of time.

What are the possible reasons for the decline in fitness in children in the USA?

Television; students who watch little TV have less body fat and are more physically active than those who watch for several hours a day. Cardiac and muscular fitness; is developed by participation in continuous exercise but parents and schools tend to focus on sports such as baseball and football which are less apt to promote fitness.

Developmental Disabilities

Term used to describe children who have a limitation due to a loss or reduction of function.

What did the National Bureau of Economic Research find regarding ninth graders and fast food?

That is they have a fast food restaurant within 0.1 miles of their school that there was a 5.2% increase in their obesity rate. There was no association when the restaurant was 0.25-0.5 miles away.

What has to happen before a child can be diagnosed with ADHD?

The APA says the behaviour pattern has to have persisted for at least 6 months before diagnosis can be made. The hyperactivity and restlessness of children with ADHD impairs ability to function in school - they can't sit still. Have difficulty getting along with others. They are disruptive and noncompliant which often elicits punishment from parents.

What is fluid reasoning?

The ability to think logically and solve problems in novel situations.

How much do children need to eat to fuel the growth spurt?

The average 4-6 year old needs 1400-1800 calories a day, and the average 7-10 year old needs 2000 a day.

What can be a challenge when treating children with ADHD?

The fact that most of the focus has been on European American middle-class children. African American children deal with cultural issues making their diagnosis and treatment challenging. Both demographics respond similar to medications but white children receive medications at twice the rate of black children. Culturally competent providers is an obstacle preventing ethnic children from getting optimal care. Another challenge is poverty. A further challenge is a substantial number of children with ADHD are n the juvenile justice system or child welfare systems where the personnel change and inadequate medical care are common. Teachers also assume that African children are naturally more hyperactive than Euro-American children even though they display the same behaviour. Schools assign these children to "special" classes. Parents tend to be less informed and are more likely to attribute ADHD to other causes such as sugar intake. They are also less aware of their rights when it comes to school decisions because they face limited access to useful services in their communities.

What is the fitness of children considering all the emphasis on exercise in society?

The incidence of obesity has increased, in spite of our society's emphasis on health and fitness, in all races. During the past generation, obesity has increased by more than 50% for children 6 to 11 years of age and by about 40% for children who are 12 to 17. Almost two-third of children in the U.S. did not meet physical fitness standards of the President's Council on Physical Fitness. Another study reported a decline in strength, cardiovascular endurance, and flexibility over a 10-year period in elementary and high school children.

What happens to a child's brain in middle childhood?

The myelination of axons continues to occur and through young adulthood. Growth in volume and weight of the brain decelerates, but there are overall gains in size and weight. The frontal part of the brain is most highly involved in executive functions (planning and self-regulation). This is dramatic development. The child begins to utilize their executive functions and fluid reasoning. The child is gaining control other their attentional processes which develops in infancy and develops rapidly throughout early childhood. But during the ages of 7-9, cognitive flexibility, goal setting, and information processing undergo an important period of development and become relatively mature by age 12 which sets the stage for the cognitive advances of adolescence.

What are the negative side effects of special education programs?

They can stigmatize or segregate children. They can negatively influence teacher expectations where both the teacher and student come to expect very little and the negative expectation becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy where the students achievements suffer.

What happens as children's bones lengthen and broaden and muscles strengthen?

They may want more exercise. This is due to the aches, pains and stiffness children experience during this growth spurt and has been called "growing pains". Especially common in the legs.

What are the typical fine motor skills of a 6-7 year old?

Tie shoelaces, throwing a ball with wrist and finger release, holding pen/pencil with fingertips, follow a simple maze, may be able to hit a ball with a bat.

Is it true that hyperactivity is caused by chemical food additives?

True and false. There have been conflicting results, but researchers generally agree that food coloouring and preservatives are not responsible for ADHD.

Is it true that stimulants are often used to treat children who are already hyperactive?

True, stimulants, such as Ritilan, are the most widely used treatment for ADHD.

Is it true that some children who are intelligent and provided with enriched home environments cannot learn how to read or do simple math problems?

True. Many of these children have learning disabilities.

What are the typical gross motor skills of a 9 year old?

Vigorous body activities, esp. team sports.

How is asthma treated?

With nasal corticosteroids which block reaction to allergens and reduce airway constriction. Cromolyn sodium and nedocromil medication, immunomodulators, leukotriene modifiers, and long-acting beta-agonist (LABA) bronchodilators (NHLBI). Removing dust, dander, and mites.

What are dyslexic college students excellent with performing? And what do they have difficulty with?

Word recognition. They have trouble with decoding new words.

Do kids outgrow ADHD?

Yes some do, but longitudinal studies found that at least 2/3 of kids with the disorder exhibit one or more of the core symptoms in adolescence and adulthood. Problems in conduct, attention, hyperactivity and learning frequently continue.

Is it true that the typical North American child is exposed to about 10,000 food commercials each year?

Yes, and the bulk of those commercials are for fast foods, highly sweetened cereals, soft drinks, and candy bars.

Is there a connection between self-esteem and soft lenses or glasses?

Yes. A study assigning children to wear glasses or contact lenses found that the children who wore lenses rated their physical appearance, athletic competence and social acceptance significantly higher. However, there was no difference in global self-worth between the two.

Are children's deviations in height and weight normal throughout middle childhood?

Yes. The individual differences are quite marked over the differences in early childhood. Ex: most 3 year olds are within 8-10lbs and 4 inches of each other, but when they reach age 10 their weight can vary from 30-35lbs and their height may vary by as much as 6 inches.