Chapter 12
a significant number of Neandertal skeletons have been found in ______. That is, excavation of some Neandertal sites in Europe and western Asia has shown that they had been dug, corpses had been placed in them, and they had been filled in.
pits
Boule argued that the Neandertal cranial and postcranial traits were simply too _________ and too different from modern people's to have provided the ancestral basis for later human evolution. He concluded that the La Chapelle individual must have walked with a bent-kneed gait—as in chimpanzees that walk bipedally—and could not have been able to speak. Simply, in his mind, Neandertals represented some side branch of human evolution—they were too primitive, too stupid, and too aberrant to have evolved into modern humans.
primitive
Genetic dating based on mutation rates of mtDNA and Y chromosomes as well as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (see chapter 4) indicates that the migration from Asia to the Americas likely took place sometime around ________ yBP.
15k yBP
Early Modern Homo sapiens Chronology
160,000 yBP in Africa 90,000 yBP in western Asia 35,000 yBP in eastern Asia 32,000 yBP in Europe
Based on their assessment of mutation rates, Cann's group came up with a figure of __________ yBP for the first early modern H. sapiens' appearance, and this date is consistent with the earliest record of modern H. sapiens in Africa.
200k
The first modern H. sapiens appeared earliest in Africa, by 160,000 yBP, and latest in Europe. The transition to fully modern H. sapiens was completed globally by about _______ yBP.
25,000
The latest archaic H. sapiens, the Neandertals, survived until at least ________ yBP or so at Vindija (Croatia).
32k
The earliest forms of H. sapiens emerged around ________ yBP. They have been found in ______, _______, and _______
350,000, Africa, Asia, and Europe
he earliest modern H. sapiens were present as early as _______ yBP at Mladeč (Czech Republic) and at Peştera cu Oase (Romania).
35k
microcephaly
A condition in which the cranium is abnormally small and the brain is underdeveloped.
occipital bun
A cranial feature of Neandertals in which the occipital bone projects substantially from the skull's posterior.
shovel-shaped incisors
A dental trait, commonly found among Native Americans and Asians, in which the incisors' posterior aspect has varying degrees of concavity.
Levallois
A distinctive method of stone tool production used during the Middle Paleolithic, in which the core was prepared and flakes removed from the surface before the final tool was detached from the core.
Flores Woman
A recent discovery on Flores Island, Indonesia, has become the source of much debate in anthropology. Some researchers believe this "hobbit" represents a group of early hominins that evolved in isolation in the far western Pacific region. Others believe this skeleton belonged to a modern human who had some developmental or genetic abnormality.
Assimilation Model
According to this model, modern Homo sapiens evolved first in Africa from Homo erectus. Groups of Homo sapiens then spread to Europe and Asia. Once in Europe and Asia, these modern H. sapiens interbred with populations they encountered, the late archaic H. sapiens (Neandertals). This admixture is the biological foundation for modern H. sapiens living outside of Africa today.
In many respects, the fossil record and the cultural record show that modern behaviors and practices began, biologically and culturally, in _____.
Africa
Modern humans' evolution started much earlier in _____than in _________ and _______.
Africa, Europe, Asia
What motivated early modern people to move?
Among the multiple reasons, four are most important: population increase disappearance of food resources increased competition with neighbors for remaining resources climate deterioration
Archaic Homo sapiens
Archaic H. sapiens are the first of our species, beginning some 350,000 yBP globally and evolving locally from earlier Homo erectus populations. After 150,000 yBP, regional patterns of diversity emerge, followed by simultaneous occupation of Europe by late archaic (Neandertals) and early modern H. sapiens by 40,000 yBP.
Beginning in the very late Pleistocene, eastern _______ became the stepping-off point for migrations to previously unoccupied continents. Southeast ______ served as the stepping-off point for the movements to Australia and across the Pacific as people eventually occupied most of the 20,000-30,000 islands between Australia and the Americas. Northeast ______ served as the stepping-off point for the spread to North America and South America.
Asia
_______ and ________-_________ have shovel-shaped incisors. In these incisors and many other dental features, the American anthropologists Albert Dahlberg and Christy Turner have identified a common ancestry for them.
Asians, Native-Americans
What do physical anthropologists mean by modern?
Based on a series of distinctive anatomical characteristics that contrast with archaic characteristics found in earlier hominins. Modern people—people who essentially look like us—tend to have a high and vertical forehead, a round and tall skull, small browridges, a small face, small teeth, and a projecting chin (anthropologists call the latter a "mental eminence"). Below the neck, modern humans have relatively more gracile, narrower bones than their predecessors. Fossil humans having these cranial and postcranial characteristics are considered modern H. sapiens.
Bergmann & Allen's rule
Bergmann's rule - Animals that live in cold climates are larger than animals that live in hot climates. The larger body trunk reduces the amount of surface area relative to the body size. This helps promote heat retention. Allen's rule - animals that live in cold climates have shorter limbs than animals that live in hot climates. This, too, promotes heat retention in cold settings. Adaptation to heat or cold is not related to a person's height—some heat-adapted populations are quite tall, and some are quite short. Much more important is the width of the body trunk (usually measured at the hips), because the ratio of surface area to body mass is maintained regardless of height (Figure 12.22). This finding is borne out by a wide range of populations around the world today: populations living in the same climate all have body trunks of the same width, no matter how their heights vary. Populations living in cold climates always have wide bodies; populations living in warm climates always have narrow bodies.
The earliest archaic H. sapiens had many of the same kinds of tools and material technology as the earlier H. erectus, but theirs were more ________.
diverse
How do archaic H. sapiens differ from modern H. sapiens
Compared to modern H. sapiens, archaic H. sapiens have a longer and lower skull, a larger browridge, a bigger and more projecting face, a taller and wider nasal aperture (opening for the nose), a more projecting occipital bone (sometimes called an occipital bun when referring to Neandertals), larger teeth (especially the front teeth), and no chin. The postcranial bones of archaic H. sapiens are thicker than modern people's.
EARLY ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS IN EUROPE (500,000-130,000 YBP)
Dating to about 430,000 yBP, one of the most significant fossils for early archaic H. sapiens, and for all of human evolution, is from the Sima de los Huesos cave site, in the Sierra de Atapuerca, near Burgos, Spain. Among the 28 or so individuals from the cave is a wonderfully preserved skeleton of an adult male, Atapuerca 5. This is one of the few instances ever in which a fossilized individual's skull (including the mandible) was found in direct association with the postcranial skeleton. The cranial capacity is about 1,125 cc. The skull has a large browridge and a pronounced facial projection. The nasal aperture is quite tall and wide. These features foreshadow the facial characteristics of the late archaic H. sapiens in Europe and far western Asia, the Neandertals (discussed below). Other well-known early archaic H. sapiens fossils from Europe are the skull and other remains from Arago, France; the skull from Petralona, Greece; the skull from Steinheim, Germany (Figure 12.8); and the partial skull from Swanscombe, England. Their average cranial capacity is 1,200 cc. These early archaic H. sapiens illustrate the larger brain and rounder, more gracile skulls compared with H. erectus.
Denisovans
Denisova hominins are an extinct species of human in the genus Homo. In March 2010, scientists announced the discovery of a finger bone fragment of a juvenile female who lived about 41,000 years ago. Diverged from lineage with Neanderthals, interbreed with them and with an unknown human lineage.
Kennewick Man
Discovered on the banks of the Columbia River, Kennewick Man represents the Paleoindians. (9,400 years old?)
Clovis
Earliest Native American ("Paleoindian") culture of North America; technology known for large, fluted, bifacial stone projectile points used as spear points for big-game hunting.
Something that can be confusing is that archaic Homo sapiens is often divided into two groups:
Early archaic Late archaic
Early Modern Homo sapiens
Early modern H. sapiens occurred first in Africa, later in Asia and Europe. The peopling of Europe, Asia, and Africa by only modern H. sapiens was complete by 25,000 yBP.
More recent studies of nuclear Dna Indicates that __________ and __________ have 2-4% Neanderthal DNA. interesting no Neanderthal __ chromosomes are found in modern humans.
Europeans, East Asians, y
True or False? Humans and neanderthals share elements of mtDNA
False
True or False? The Multiregional Continuity model suggests that modern humans evolved in Africa, migrated to Europe, and then interbred with Neandertals.
False
True or False? Neandertal body shape was adapted to efficient hunting.
False The difference between the body shape of Neandertals and that of most modern humans is accounted for by adaptation to cold environments.
True or False? Cut marks on Neandertal bones show that they hunted down and killed members of their own species to eat.
False. Although cut marks have been found on Neandertal bones that suggest cannibalism, this is not direct evidence for hunting. These Neandertals could have died of other causes and their flesh then eaten for survival.
True or False? Humans only interbred with Neandartals
False. Genetic evidence strongly suggests that modern humans migrated from Africa and interbred with hominin species beyond just Neandertals. In fact, the European continent appears to have been inhabited by various isolated peoples.
What are the two explanations for Africa's greater genetic diversity.
First, a population or group of populations that has been around a long time will have accumulated more mutations—hence, greater genetic variation—than a population or group of populations that has been around a short time. The alternative explanation for Africa's greater genetic diversity lies in its population structure compared with other continents'. The American anthropological geneticist John Relethford observes that population size tremendously influences genetic diversity. As discussed in chapter 3, if the breeding population is small, genetic drift is a potentially powerful force for altering gene frequencies. Over time, genetic drift reduces genetic diversity in a small population (such as might have been the case in Europe and Asia).
LATE ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS IN ASIA (60,000-40,000 YBP)
For Asian late archaic H. sapiens, the record is fullest from sites at the far western end of the continent. Fossils from Israel form the core of discussions among anthropologists about modern people's emergence in western Asia. This record pertains to Neandertals from Amud, Kebara, and Tabun. The Amud Neandertals date to about 55,000-40,000 yBP and are best known from the complete skeleton of an adult male. He had an enormous brain, measuring some 1,740 cc, larger than earlier humans' and the largest for any fossil hominin. The Kebara Neandertals date to about 60,000 yBP and are represented by a complete mandible and body skeleton; the legs and cranium are missing. A nearly complete female Neandertal skeleton from Tabun was long thought to date to about the same time, but new thermoluminescence dating indicates that the skeleton may be as old as 170,000 yBP. Like the Amud male, she had a large brain.
The fossil record of the late archaic H. sapiens is fascinating because:
For the first time in human evolution, a number of fairly complete skeletons exist, allowing new insights into the biology and behavior of these ancient humans. Moreover, the material culture includes new kinds of tools, and reflects new behaviors, that are modern in several important ways.
megafauna
General term for the large game animals hunted by pre-Holocene and early Holocene humans.
In the first wave out of Africa, __________ spread rapidly throughout Asia and Europe. In the second wave out of Africa, early modern _________s assimilated and eventually replaced the descendants of H. erectus in Asia and Europe. The last 50,000 years of the Pleistocene saw fully modern people spread not only into Asia and Europe but also to continents that had previously not been occupied by people.
H. erectus, H. sapien
H. Sapien evolution is clearly out of the earlier ___________ populations. Anthropologists have documented this evolutionary transition in the three continental settings, noting, for example, the similarly massive ________ in _________ H. sapiens and in earlier H. erectus.
H. erectus, browridges, archaic
Place the following events in the evolution of modern humans in the correct chronological order, starting with the one that happened first. Early modern people evolved in Africa. Human populations began showing regional diversity. Neandertals occupied much of Europe and western Asia.
Human populations began showing regional diversity. Early modern people evolved in Africa. Neandertals occupied much of Europe and western Asia.
Cro-Magnon
In 1868, a geologist discovered skeletons in a rockshelter in Cro-Magnon, France. These remains are anatomically modern, with a number of features distinct from Neandertals', including a high and vertical forehead, flat browridges, a much narrower nasal aperture, and an overall gracile skull.
Explain migration to Australia
In the late Pleistocene, sea levels were considerably lower than they are today, by as much as 90 m (300 ft), exposing land surfaces now submerged by water and making them available for human occupation and movement between landmasses. Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania constituted a single landmass, which we call Greater Australia At least 70 km (43.5 mi) of open water separated Sulawesi and Borneo from Australia. To traverse open water from southeastern Asia to Australia, late Pleistocene humans would have needed sophisticated boating technology and equally sophisticated navigational skills. No evidence of such technology and skills has been found. Modern humans seem to have had simply enough know-how to reach Australia, which they ultimately colonized. The earliest archaeological evidence of humans in Australia is from Lake Mungo, in western New South Wales, dating to about 40,000 yBP
Archaic Homo sapiens biology
Mixture of H. erectus and H. sapiens characteristics 1,200 cc cranial capacity early 1,500 cc cranial capacity late Both skulls and skeletons less robust Reduced tooth size, but most of reduction in premolars and molars (front teeth increase in size) Appearance of Neandertal morphology after 130,000 yBP in Middle East and Europe (long, low skull; wide, large nose; large front teeth with common heavy wear; forward-projecting face; no chin; wide body trunk; short limbs) Distinctive mtDNA structure Distinctive nuclear DNA structure but overlapping with living humans'
Mousterian tools 2
Mousterian Tools Neandertals made these tools out of flint. The use of such tools would have replaced the use of front teeth as tools, reducing the amount of anterior tooth wear in some later Neandertals.
Neandertals were associated with the culture known as ___________ or Middle ______________.
Mousterian, Paleolithic
Ngandong
Multiple skulls were found at this site in Java in the 1930s. The brain size of this early archaic Homo sapiens falls between those of Homo erectus and of modern humans.
Homo floresiensis
Nicknamed "Hobbit" for its diminutive size, a possible new species of Homo found in Liang Bua Cave, on the Indonesian
Native Americans today have exclusively blood type ___.
O
Out-of-Africa vs. Multiregional
Out-of-Africa - states that modern H. sapiens first evolved in Africa and then spread to Asia and Europe, replacing the indigenous archaic H. sapiens populations living on these two continents. Multiregional Continuity - regards the transition to modernity as having taken place regionally and without involving replacement. From this point of view, African archaic H. sapiens gave rise to African modern H. sapiens, Asian archaic H. sapiens gave rise to Asian modern H. sapiens, and European archaic H. sapiens gave rise to European modern H. sapiens.
calculus
Refers to hardened plaque on teeth; the condition is caused by the minerals from saliva being continuously deposited on tooth surfaces.
Upper Paleolithic
Refers to the most recent part of the Old Stone Age, associated with early modern H. sapiens and characterized by finely crafted stone and other types of tools with various functions.
gracilization
Refers to the thinning of skeletal bones and is linked with neoteny or paedomorphism, the attaining of sexual maturity in a more juvenalized state (also linked with our "domestication," less robust skeletons than those corresponding to TAP).
These Neandertals—seven adults and three young children—have provided important insight into the lives, lifestyles, and cultural practices of late archaic H. sapiens.
Shanider remains
Archaic Homo sapiens Culture and behavior
Some evidence of housing structures Large-game hunting Fishing and use of aquatic resources after 100,000 yBP More advanced form of Acheulian early Mousterian late (Europe) Increased use of various raw materials besides stone after 100,000 yBP Skilled tool production Burial of deceased after 100,000 yBP Symbolic behavior Social care of sick and injured Articulate speech likely
EARLY ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS IN ASIA (350,000-130,000 YBP)
Some of the best-known fossils are from the Ngandong site, on the island of Java. The skulls are represented by the braincases only—the faces are missing. Ngandong 11 has a brain size of about 1,100 cc, well within the range for early archaic H. sapiens. The skull is long and low, but compared with its H. erectus ancestor, the skull is somewhat higher, reflecting its larger brain. The browridge is massive, certainly on the order of many H. erectus examples. The browridges are quite large, although not as large as in H. erectus.?????? The Ngandong skulls share a number of features with other Asian early archaic H. sapiens The crania are large and robust.
Two main hypotheses have emerged to explain modern people's origins
The Out-of-Africa hypothesis - modern H. sapiens first evolved in Africa and then spread to Asia and Europe, replacing the indigenous archaic H. sapiens populations living on these two continents. The Multiregional Continuity hypothesis - regards the transition to modernity as having taken place regionally and without involving replacement. From this point of view, African archaic H. sapiens gave rise to African modern H. sapiens, Asian archaic H. sapiens gave rise to Asian modern H. sapiens, and European archaic H. sapiens gave rise to European modern H. sapiens.
What settles the debate about whether the Out-of-Africa model or the Multiregional Continuity model explains modern H. sapiens' origins?
The discovery that sub-Saharan African populations are more genetically diverse than populations from any other region of the world.
Paleoindians
The earliest hominin inhabitants of the Americas; they likely migrated from Asia and are associated with the Clovis and Folsom stone tool cultures in North America and comparable tools in South America.
LATE ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS
The hominins from this period show a continuation of trends begun with early Homo, especially increased brain size reduced tooth size decreased skeletal robusticity However, in far western Asia (the Middle East) and Europe, a new pattern of morphology emerges, reflecting both regional variation and adaptation to cold. This new pattern defines the Neandertals. Neandertal features include: wide and tall nasal apertures a projecting face; an occipital bun a long low skull large front teeth (some with heavy wear) a wide, stocky body short limbs.
Mousterian
The stone tool culture in which Neandertals produced tools using the Levallois technique.
This extramasticatory wear on the front teeth of Shanider 1 is determined by _______—Neandertals used their front teeth as a part of their "______." Use of the front teeth as a tool has remained a hallmark of human behavior into recent times in a wide variety of cultures, ranging from Eskimos, who chew hides for clothing and other material culture, to Native Americans, who chew plant material to prepare it for basketry.
culture, tool-kit,
Kabwe
This archaic H. sapiens, also known as "Broken Hill Man" or "Rhodesian Man," was among the first early human fossils discovered in Africa. Found by miners searching for metal deposits in caves, it was originally thought to be less than 40,000 years old.
True or False? Neandertals ate lots of meat, at or nearly at the level of carnivores living at the same time and place
True
True or False? The Multiregional Continuity model emphasizes the importance of gene flow across population boundaries and upholds that separate species of humanity never arose.
True
True or False? The Out-of-Africa model explains the single species of living humans by emphasizing a single origin of modern people and eventual replacement of archaic H. sapiens throughout Africa, Asia, and Europe.
True
Early Modern Homo sapiens Culture
Upper Paleolithic Increased visible symbolic behavior (cave art) Burial of deceased with grave goods Decreased hunting, increased fishing, aquatic foods, likely more plants, and reduced focus on big-game animals Technology changes reflect increased focus on fishing (e.g., bone harpoons)
The more modern characteristics of East African skeletons from the ___________________ provide compelling evidence that modern variation originated in Africa.
Upper Pleistocene
Early Modern Homo sapiens Biology
Vertical forehead, high skull, rounder skull, reduced facial robusticity, smaller teeth, reduced midfacial prognathism, 1,500 cc cranial capacity Heat-adapted body morphology (small trunk, long limbs)
FOXP2 gene
a gene strongly implicated in the production of speech—from Neandertal bone samples from the El Sidrón site.
Shanidar 1
an older adult male dating to at least 45,000 yBP, is one of the most complete skeletons from the site The face is that of a typical Neandertal, especially in its wide nasal aperture and forward projection A fracture on his upper face, well healed at the time of his death, may have been severe enough to cause blindness. Severe arthritis in his feet might have resulted from the constant stresses of traversing difficult, mountainous terrain. upper incisors are severely worn, probably from his use of the front teeth as a tool for grasping and holding objects lower right arm was missing, may have been either amputated or accidentally severed right above the elbow. The humerus was severely atrophied, probably owing to disuse of the arm during life. The loss of the use of the arm meant that Shanidar 1 had to use his teeth to perform some simple functions, such as eating or making tools. His survival likely depended on the use of his front teeth
H. sapiens' evolution begins with the emergence of ________-________, some 350,000-500,000 yBP.
archaic forms
One of several individuals found in the Kabwe (Broken Hill) lead mine in Zambia has enormous ____________, but the facial bones and the muscle attachment areas on the back of the skull for the neck muscles are quite ______ compared with those of H. erectus in Africa
browridges, small
Analysis of plant residues found in Neandertal tooth ______ shows that Neandertals ate a diversity of ______, some of which were cooked.
calculus, plants
Neandertals likely were not weird humanlike primates, less adaptable and less intelligent than modern humans. The evidence is in their:
climate adaptation material culture efficiency in hunting strategies access to animal protein treatment of the deceased use of speech and symbolism
The overlap in dates between Neandertals and early modern humans indicates that the two groups __________ in ______ Europe for at least several thousand years. This finding argues _______ the Multiregional Continuity model, which sees archaic H. sapiens as having evolved locally into modern H. sapiens.
coexisted, eastern, against
Remains of the earliest modern people from _________ Asia are very scarce. Some of these remains are purported to be older than ______ yBP.
eastern, 60k
Some Neandertal features persist well into recent times in ________-_______, especially in the ________ region
eastern-europe, facial
The fossil record and the genetic record indicate, however, that neither the Out-of-Africa model nor the Multiregional Continuity model adequately explains modern humans' origins. The Out-of-Africa model correctly accounts for the origin of modern human variation, but it incorrectly asserts that no gene flow occurred between Neandertals and modern H. sapiens. The Multiregional Continuity model is not correct about modern H. sapiens' regional development. However, it is correct about gene flow and the notion that Neandertals have contributed to modern H. sapiens' gene pool. Explain this paradox:
elements of both models explain the emergence and evolution of fully modern people worldwide in the Upper Pleistocene. That is, sometime within 200,000-100,000 yBP, a population of modern heat-adapted H. sapiens migrated from Africa to Europe and Asia. Once arriving in Europe, this population encountered members of their species—the Neandertals—who were as behaviorally and technologically complex as they. Neandertals, cold-adapted people, had evolved from earlier H. sapiens populations in Europe—the early archaic H. sapiens—and they interbred with the newly arrived modern H. sapiens. Therefore, Neandertals' disappearance after 30,000 yBP or so likely resulted not from their extinction but from their assimilation by much larger, more genetically diverse populations of modern humans migrating into Europe from Africa during the late Pleistocene
ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS IN AFRICA (350,000-200,000 YBP):
enormous browridges small facial bones and the muscle attachment areas on the back of the skull for the neck muscle cranial capacity is about 1,300 cc. (((((skull is similar in appearance to those of early archaic hominins from Europe. )))) erectuslike characteristics: a large face, large browridges, and thick cranial bones. However, H. erectus skulls, like their Asian counterparts, are higher, reflecting a brain expansion.
Scientists cannot explain why cannibalism was practiced, but perhaps Neandertals ate human flesh to survive severe _____-___________ during their occupation of Ice Age Europe.
food-shortages
The foramina's increased size is due to the blood vessels that tracked through them having been quite large. The larger blood vessels may have allowed greater blood flow to the face, preventing exposed facial surfaces from ________.
freezing
comparisons of earlier with later early modern H. sapiens in Europe indicate a trend toward _______________—the faces, jaws, and teeth became smaller and the faces became less projecting. In addition, comparison of early and late Upper Paleolithic heights reconstructed from the long bones shows that the later early modern people were _______. The _________ in the height of early modern people may have been caused, at the very end of the Pleistocene, by both a decrease in the quality of nutrition and resource stress. That is, during the last 20,000 years of the Pleistocene, food procurement intensified
gracilization, shorter, decrease
The size, shape, and articulations of the Neandertal ______ reflects the kind of precise manual _________ crucial for the fine-crafting of tools
hand, dexterity
some of these fragments display a series of distinctive cutmarks in places where ligaments (the tissue that connects muscle to bone) were severed with stone tools. The location and pattern of cutmarks on the Krapina Neandertal bones are identical to those on animal bones found at the site. That strategically placed cutmarks appear on human and animal bones indicates that these people ate animal and _________ tissue. The Krapina Neandertals were not the only ones to practice ____________.
human, cannibalism
One compelling line of evidence suggests that Neandertals were able to speak. The Kebara Neandertal skeleton includes the _______ bone, a part of the neck that can survive from ancient settings. Even more convincing evidence that Neandertals spoke are findings from the study of microscopic wear patterns on the surfaces of their ______-______, especially of the study of the relationship with brain laterality.
hyoid, front teeth
Another indicator of Neanderthal effective adaptation is the measurement of stress levels. The American physical anthropologist Debbie Guatelli-Steinberg and her associates found that _______________, the stress markers in teeth that reflect growth disruption due to poor diets or poor health, are present in Neandertals but at a frequency no different from that of modern humans. This finding, too, suggests that Neandertals dealt successfully with their environments.
hypoplasias
The morphology of the Kebara Neandertal's hyoid is _________ to that of a living human's. The Kebara people ________.
identical, talked
the _____________-__________,the small holes in the facial bones located beneath the eye orbits—are _______ in European Neandertals
infraorbital foramina, larger
That the earliest modern H. sapiens had clear Neandertal features (such as the occipital bun) indicates _______________between Neandertals and early modern people. This finding argues _________the Out-of-Africa model, which sees no gene flow between Neandertals and early modern humans.
interbreeding, against
The _____-___________ period of human evolution includes the universal appearance of the modern anatomical characteristics, namely, a reduced face, small teeth, a vertical forehead, a more rounded skull, and gracile postcranial bones. Modern humans' evolution started much earlier in _______ than in ______ and Asia.
later Pleistocene, Africa, Europe
The Paleoindians differed anatomically from recent Native Americans. The Paleoindians' skulls were relatively _____ and _______, and their faces were _______, with large attachment areas for the mastication muscles. In contrast, many late prehistoric and living Native Americans have short, round skulls with gracile faces.
long, narrow, robust
Perforated marine shells similar to those in Africa and the Middle East had been painted with naturally occurring pigments, especially red, yellow, and orange. These shells were likely strung around an individual's _____. These body ornaments are evidence that Neandertals used ___________ at least 10,000 years before the appearance of modern H. sapiens in Europe. In addition, the use of red ochre—a pigment derived from the mineral hematite—was used by hominins at least by 250,000 yBP in a range of European hominin contexts. Neandertals used symbols to communicate ideas and expressions.
neck, symbolism,
Across the H. Sapiens, the face, jaws, and back teeth (premolars and molars) show a general __________ in size. The American physical anthropologist C. Loring Brace hypothesizes that selection for large _________ lessened as tools became more important for processing food. Simply, with reduced selection, the teeth became smaller. Alternatively, as technological innovation changed the way teeth were used, the teeth may have been under greater selection for reduced size. At the same time that the importance of the back teeth diminished, the use of the front teeth ___________. That is, during this period of human evolution, the front teeth—incisors and canines—underwent heavy wear. For example, in Atapuerca 5, from Spain, the upper incisors are worn nearly to where the gums would have been in life. This evidence tells us that these hominins used their front teeth as a ______, perhaps as a kind of third hand for gripping materials.
reduction, back teeth, increased, tool
The ____ and ___________ of their long bones show that Neandertals were highly physically active, more so than living humans. Such cultural and biological features reflect Neandertals' success in adapting to environmental circumstances of the Upper Pleistocene, not evolutionary failure. The empirical evidence disproves arguments that Neandertals were less than human.
size, robusticity
Although quite primitive in key respects, all the fossils representing archaic H. sapiens and earlier H. erectus show continued reduction in ________-________, smaller ______ size, expansion in ______ size, and increasing _________ complexity.
skeletal robusticity, tooth, brain, cultural
Compared with modern humans, European Neandertals were ________—the body was short, wide, and deep. Neandertals' limbs were ______shorter than earlier or later humans'
stocky, shorter
Most of the intentionally buried Neandertal skeletons were in flexed (fetal-oriented) postures. The hands and arms were carefully positioned, and the bodies were typically on their sides or backs. This vigilant treatment indicates that care was taken to place the bodies in the prepared pits. The skeletons' postures suggest, therefore, that these burials were not just disposals, but purposeful ___________ behavior linking those who died and those who were living.
symbolic
The earliest modern H. sapiens in Asia are best represented by fossils from ________-_____, in fact from the same region as the Amud and Kebara Neandertals in Israel. The _________-year-old remains from Skhul have distinctively modern characteristics, suggesting that the people living there were modern H. sapiens.
western asia, 90k
Neandertal features include:
wide and tall nasal apertures a projecting face; an occipital bun a long low skull large front teeth (some with heavy wear) a wide, stocky body short limbs.
