Chapter 2 DEI

PPT: In-group Bias- Define

The especially positive feelings and special treatment we reserve for people we have defined as part of our in-group. In-group: people we with whom we share a category membership

What is discrimination? Dworkin and Dworkin classify this under what?

Dworkin and Dworkin include the experience of discrimination as a defining characteristic of minorities. Discrimination has been broadly defined as differential and pejorative actions that serve to limit the social, political, or economic opportunities of members of particular groups. Various types of discrimination have limiting effects on their targets. Employment discrimination occurs when personal characteristics of applicants or workers that are unrelated to productivity are valued in the labor market. Employment discrimination based on sex, a personal characteristic, limits the social, political, and economic opportunities of women. Through access discrimination, the social, political, and economic opportunities of Blacks are limited. For targets of discrimination, according to Dworkin and Dworkin, the experience of being discriminated against leads to group awareness and can become the focus of protests and activism"

What is internalized racism?

" internalized racism among Asians, noting one Asian man's parents had told him to stay away from Asians, resulting in him feeling "uneasy" when around Asians, and feeling he "can't stand Vietnamese people or just Asians in general."46 Internalized sexism exists when women accept and believe negative messages about their own abilities and intrinsic worth and those of other women. While many non-dominant group members resist such negative messages and have pride in their group memberships, those who succumb to internalized oppression may suffer a host of negative individual consequences (e.g., depression, hopelessness, and health problems) that affect organizations and society as well. Internalized ableism, ageism, and homophobia are other forms of internalized oppression that can impede diversity and inclusion in organizations.47Although these -isms may occur, it is also possible that any in-group favoritism exhibited by powerful non-dominant members might be noticed and scrutinized more than in-group favoritism by dominant group members. This may serve to limit in-group favoritism by non-dominant group members.4"

PPT: Things we Categorize (4 examples)

Natural" or "primitive" widely used categories: •Groups we belong to: example race, age, gender •Deviations from the norm: example Women as CEOS •Groups important in context: example Salesperson, customer •Categories we use frequently: example Student, faculty

What is internalized oppression? What is Kenneth and Mamie Clark's "doll studies"? What is ane Elliott's "blue eyes/brown eyes" experiment?

Non-dominant group members to a certain extent may "buy-in" to the negative stereotypes about their group and also prefer members of the dominant group because of internalized oppression. Internalized oppression exists when members of devalued groups consciously or unconsciously accept or believe negative messages about their own abilities and intrinsic worth and those of other members of the same group. Kenneth and Mamie Clark's "doll studies," which continue to be replicated decades later, and Jane Elliott's "blue eyes/brown eyes" experiments in the documentary A ClassDivided have been offered as evidence of the power of racism and continued messages that one's group is of low value. For example, the stereotype that Black people are lazy and have a poor work ethic is sometimes held by Black people and other minorities as well as by Whites.

PPT: Kandinsky versus Klee experiment (Tajfel et al., 1971)- What happened in the experiment?

uThe boys thought the groupings were based on the expressed preferences but the groupings were completely randomized. uThen each boy was given a task to award points to two other boys, one from his same group and one from the other group. The only information that the boys were given were code numbers and the name of the group of the two boys they were supposed to award. uThe boys generally awarded more points to the members of their in-group showing in-group favoritism.

PPT: Effects of Stereotyping: Consumer Racial Profiling- based on the belief of three things. What is an example?

•Based on beliefs that : •Blacks are more likely to be shoplifters •Race is not a predictor of shoplifting •Blacks are less likely to have money to spend •"Shopping while Oprah"

PPT: Can individuals control their own stereotypes and prejudice (blinding)? What is blinding? Give an example of this use.

•Blinding: Intentionally not knowing category membership. •e.g. Orchestras became more integrated when a screen hid the performer during the audition.

PPT: Situational and Individual Differences- three items that determine ingroup characteristics

•Degree of ingroup identification •The relative size and distinctiveness of one's ingroup •The person's status relative to others in the ingroup

PPT: How are stereotypes related to diversity training?

•Discussing stereotypical differences may actually result in practicing and memorizing them! •e.g. Stender v. Lucky Stores (1992)

PPT: Effects of Stereotypes on Targets eg positive stereotypes. Give an example of a positive stereotype and effect on the target.

•Even positive stereotypes can be damaging. •What's wrong with the implication that black men can jump? "Mark Flick" study (Stone et al., 1997) White basketball player seen as having "court sense" while black player similarly described seen as more talented. •Potential abuse of stereotyping can be more subtle—and might involve a stereotype about a positive attribute. •Denies individuality of the person. e.g., tall woman who doesn't play basketball e.g. African-American man as technology "Geek"

PPT: Although suppressing stereotypes can backfire... Thought suppression depends on two processes. What are they? Give an example.

Thought suppression depends on two processes: •"monitoring" (searching for evidence that the unwanted thought is about to intrude) and •"operating process" (finding a distraction). •e.g. Wegner et al. (1993) sexism & distraction study •e.g., obsessing about food when you are on a diet.

What is a discrimination system?

according to Barbara Reskin, "the race discrimination system" includes the do-mains of residential location, schooling, employment, health, housing, credit, and justice, which are interrelated and reinforcing. In this system, there are disparities that systematically favor or disfavor certain groups and which are reinforcing. One source of these disparities is discrimination. These interrelated systems help maintain disparities by affecting individuals' beliefs and values about color and shaping the distribution of resources, thus maintaining disparities. As an example of interrelationships, residential location is related to the quality of schooling and to the level of policing in an area. Education is related to employment, which is related to housing and credit, and disparities in one of those areas reinforce disparities in other areas.

What is differential treatment?

differential treatment in the justice system, for example, affects the ability to obtain employment. Differential treatment in credit systems "e.g., mortgages and loans) affects the ability to obtain employment (through credit ratings, which some employers check for certain jobs). Discrimination in housing (residential steering) contributes to residential segregation, which is related to poorer quality education and lower home values. Shocks to the system, such as school desegregation, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (which made employment discrimination illegal), and the Fair Housing Act affect the workings of the discrimination system"

What is egalitarian values?

egalitarian values believes in human equality, particularly regarding social, political, and economic rights and privileges. Un-like those who practice traditional, overt racist behavior, those who hold aversive racist beliefs do not openly discriminate, but when their actions can be justified by some other factor (e.g., lack of "fit" or some other factor other than race), they are likely to exhibit aversive racist behaviors.

PPT: Race and Gender in Buying a CarAyres & Siegelman (1995)- What did they find?

•300 matched, trained negotiators sent to dealerships •Initial offer: •White male, $1000 over dealer cost, • Black male ($1900 over cost) • Black female ($1320 over cost), •White female ($1110 more) •After negotiation: •Black men $1100 more than White men, •Black women $410 more, •White women $92 more. •In 44% of cases, the initial offers made to White men were lower than the final offers made to other testers.

PPT: Prejudice- What is it? What are targets of prejudice?

•A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a group based solely on their membership in that group •Any group can be a target of prejudice: Nationality, Racial and ethnic identity, Gender, Sexual orientation, Religion, Appearance, Physical state, Weight

What is a stigma and how does it relate to Identifiability.Three items according to rving Goffman's 1963 book Stigma.

"A concept related to identifiability is stigma, defined as deviations from the desired norm or typical individual in a particular context. The term stigma is widely associated with Erving Goffman's 1963 book Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. Certain stigma can be "evident on the spot," according to Goffman, including: 1."Various physical deformities." 2."Blemishes of individual character," which (if not clearly visible), may be inferred from such things as a "known record" of addiction, alcoholism, homosexuality, mental illness, unemployment, or other areas. 3."Tribal stigma of race, nation, and religion, which can be transmitted through lineages and equally contaminate all members of a family." Low class status has also been included in tribal stigma. While some of Goffman's specific terminology (marks, blemishes, deformities) is no longer widely used or viewed as acceptable, the idea of being "evident on the spot" and deviant from the desired norm allows people to be singled out for differential treatment, like the concept of identifiability. This "norm" may include those perceived as a normal employee or customer in physical ability, race, nation, religion, or other diversity-related factors, where the deviation is devalued"

What is social hierarchy?

"A social hierarchy is the ranking of individuals or groups, implicitly or explicitly, regarding a valued social dimension, such as race" "Multiple researchers have proposed that the diversity of the United States' population has resulted in a multi-racial hierarchy, given the increasing racial and ethnic diversity of the population. Research on disparities in hiring, pay, promotions, and layoffs that control for productive characteristics indicate that Whites are positioned at the top of the social hierarchy, followed by Asians, Hispanics, and Blacks, with the latter two groups sometimes changing positions. Continued increases in population diversity and the relationships between diversity and organizational competitiveness, along with many moral and social concerns, make the continued pursuit of diversity and inclusion important."

What are attribution errors?

"Attribution errors are errors in estimating the influence of external factors (e.g., situa-tions or circumstances) and internal factors (e.g., personal qualities) when evaluating the behavior of in-group and out-group members. Thus, when in-group members behave positively or are successful, this behavior is attributed to the character or personal attri-butes of in-group members. When they behave negatively (such as screaming at a subor-dinate), this behavior is attributed to the circumstances (e.g., being upset because the computer system crashed and records were lost). When out-group members exhibit de-sirable behaviors, this behavior is attributed to luck or chance rather than to their char-acter. When they behave negatively (such as screaming at a subordinate), this behavior is attributed to the character of the out-group member (e.g., rude or inconsiderate). The entire out-group is also then viewed as being rude, rather than as having one member who behaved rudely at a particular point in time. Future interactions with out-group members will then continue to be shaped by perceptions that they are rude. Ironically, expecting that someone will be rude may lead to treating that person rudely, to which they may respond rudely, confirming the expectation that they (and people like them) are rude"

What is recommended for individuals and organizations?

"Because aversive racists are unaware that they hold prejudiced attitudes and genuinely think they are unbiased, efforts to change their prejudices are necessarily different from at-tempts to change those who openly acknowledge and express overt prejudice. Dovidio and Gaertner suggest several strategies that may be employed to help people reduce their propensities to stereotype and the in-group-out-group categorizations that people seem to make automatically. Their analyses indicate the following measures may be effective: ●Lead aversive racists to see the inconsistencies in their behaviors and their stated values, thereby developing cognitive dissonance and the desire to reduce it. Active efforts to reduce dissonance will help aversive racists reduce and ultimately eliminate the automatic activation of stereotypes in interactions with out-group members. ●Engage group members in activities to achieve common, superordinate goals. Doing so will reduce perceptions of competition between in-groups and out-groups while increasing perceptions of cooperation. ●Encourage groups to perceive themselves as members of a single, superordinate group, rather than as two separate groups. Doing so will help create a common identity and result in in-group favoritism that includes both groups."

What should HR do for diversity?

"Diversity and human resources practitioners should collect, analyze, and assess data on progress and trends in their organizations by identity groups (e.g., race, ethnicity, sex, age, and so on). Which groups comprise new hires, promotions, transfers, and exits? Researchers have found that even when controlling for possible contributors (absence, social class, economic sector, and industry), Black men at high and low levels were more likely to be dis-missed than White men.84 Which groups are consistently not represented in certain departments or represented only at certain levels, despite qualifications and backgrounds similar to those of others? Do certain groups comprise all or nearly all of certain departments? Managers and supervisors should be evaluated on their diversity results, including their employees' perceptions of fairness. Long-standing attitudes and perceptions about different groups, coupled with long-standing organizational practices (such as unstructured interviews or recruitment solely at certain universities) and characteristics may impede diversity and may not be useful for a considerably more diverse population. Consistent attention to diversity, equity, and inclusion are needed to ensure continued progress"

What is differential power? What is an example/

"Dworkin and Dworkin define power as the "actual use of resources to influence and control others. Differential power allows those who have more power to control those who have less power. Although power is associated with numerical dominance, those who are members of groups that are larger in number are not always the most powerful. As examples, native people in what would become the United States were originally greater in number, but they were less powerful than the European newcomers and thus were subject to domination; there are more women than men in many countries, but women as a group are less powerful than men. Through their control of re-sources, powerful groups also control access to education, employment, food, health care, income, voting rights, and other things that affect the life chances and futures of those with less power. Thus, power is used to help the dominant remain dominant"

What is hostile sexism?

"Hostile sexism is an antipathy toward women based on faulty and inflexible generalization (e.g., negative stereotypes). "

Jennifer Boldry and Deborah Kashy research. What did they find? Boldry and Kashy's sample included what? Why is their study important?

"In research conducted using real teams (rather than those formed in the labora-tory), Jennifer Boldry and Deborah Kashy found that the status of the group affected perceptions of the homogeneity of out-groups and the heterogeneity of in-groups. Lower-status groups viewed themselves and high-status groups (their out-groups) as having variation in member characteristics. High-status group members saw themselves and their group as having heterogeneous characteristics but saw the out-group members as having homogenous characteristics. Interestingly, the lower-status group rated the high-status group more favorably in terms of leadership, motivation, and character than the high-status group members rated themselves. Boldry and Kashy's sample included undergraduate freshmen and juniors participating in a campus corps of cadets, a legitimate group for research purposes but composed of 90% males. The race and ethnicity of the sample were not reported, but it is to be expected that more diversity in status characteristics (e.g., race, ethnicity, or sex) would result in different perceptions of the qualities of in- and out-groups. In addition, the out-group members were striving to "become official in-group members as they moved up the status hierarchy (i.e., become senior members of the Corps), which is not likely for those who would differ by race, ethnicity, or sex.

Research on attribution errors- what are the three general findings?

"In research summarizing findings from 19 studies about attribution errors, Hews-tone found some support for three general findings: 1. More internal attribution for positive acts and less internal attribution for negative acts by in-group than out-group members. 2. More attribution of out-group than in-group failure to lack of ability, and "explaining away" out-group success to good luck, high effort, or an easy task. 3. A preference for in-group serving rather than out-group serving attributions for group differences. When confronted with information about an out-group member that is contradictory to stereotypes, people tend to see this as "unique" ("not like the rest of them") rather than use it to question and discard their beliefs. When confronted with behavior that confirms a stereotype about an out-group member, people attend to such information and hold to relevant stereotypes. From a diversity perspective, let us consider the stereotype that Asians lack communication skills and thus prefer to work in technical jobs rather than managerial jobs. Let us assume that a decision-maker who is making promotion and succession plans holds this stereotype about Asians. If this person knows an Asian American individual who was born and reared in the United States (and who speaks English as well or as poorly as any other American), they are still likely to think Asians as a group do not speak English well and will not make good managers. Rather than use the knowledge that this known Asian person has good communication skills as a reason to question and discard the stereotype, the decision-maker is likely to discard the information as unique to this particular person."

Dogs looking at at calendar

"It's a cat calendar, so it may not be all that accurate."

What is privilege? What are some examples?

"Many associate ideas about privilege with Dr. Peggy McIntosh, former Associate Director of the Wellesley College Center for Research on Women. Privilege refers to having greater ac-cess to rewards, valued resources, and unearned advantages because of one's group member-ship. As discussed in Chapter 7, in her work at Wellesley considering men's unearned advantages, McIntosh, a White woman, began thinking about the privileges that Whites experience, such as presumptions of competence, or, as mentioned in the previous section, and not being racially profiled.Although McIntosh initially spoke of race and gender privilege, various dominant groups have unearned advantages that non-dominant groups do not share. In the United States, as Christians are the dominant religious group, Christian privilege includes such things as major Christian religious days often being work holidays. For those of other faiths, their major religious holidays may be regularly scheduled workdays and may require a request for a vacation day. Although many individuals and organizations now refer to "Winter" holidays instead of "Christmas" holidays, the Christian culture is clearly the normative and dominant culture in the United States during most of December. This privilege is largely invisible to Christians, but often not to others, and highlighting its normativity may be met with anger or ridicule. Those with privilege "often become angry when confronted by the fact of their privilege, having been taught to see their own accomplish-ments as based on their own efforts and hard work alone."60 Focusing on Whites, Knowles proposed that those who are privileged will either deny the existence of privilege, distance themselves from the privileged category, or work to dismantle systems of privilege.61 Those outcomes may also exist for other sources of privilege."

Multiple group memberships and how that relates to ingroup- outgroup? What are some examples?

"Multiple group memberships make relationships among in-groups and out-groups and social identities quite complex. A White male has a racial identity and a sex or gender identity. Depending on the circumstances and particular stereotypes, he may perceive Whites or men as the in-group and non-Whites and women as the out-groups, as appropriate. In some cases, whiteness may be his most salient identity, and he may display favoritism toward White women. In other cases, his maleness may be more salient, and he may favor a Black man. When stereotyping is included in his decision making, he may make different decisions. For example, if he perceives Black people are as not reliable, the White male manager may prefer to hire a White woman. If he views women as likely to quit work to stay at home with children or miss work because of having children, he may favor a man of color.Add religion, sexual orientation, and disability to that White man's social identities and the situation becomes even more complex. "

What is neosexism?

"Neosexism is similar to aversive racism; it occurs when people's reported egalitarian values conflict with their negative attitudes toward women. Its existence has been documented in studies conducted in the United States, Slovenia, and Croatia, among other areas.72 It could be argued that similar aversive attitudes exist toward other non-dominant groups. Reporting egalitarian attitudes toward gay men and lesbians but resisting equitable work-related benefits for them or reporting egalitarian attitudes toward people with disabilities but resisting accommodations for them as expensive or unfair to people with-out disabilities are possible examples"

Define prejudice

"Prejudice is "irrationally based, negative attitudes" about certain groups and their members.16 Prejudice is an attitude, whereas discrimination is behavior—differential and pejorative actions that serve to limit the social, political, or economic opportunities of members of particular groups—based on the attitude. Given the power to act and the absence of sanctions for doing so, discriminatory behavior may result from prejudice. For example, some employers may have negative attitudes about Black people, and these attitudes may result in the behavior of not hiring them (employment discrimination)"

What is new racism? In a laboratory study, Art Brief and his colleagues investigated what? What did they find?

"Similar to aversive racism, new racism includes beliefs that racism is a thing of the past and that Blacks have attained excessive, unfair gains through programs such as affirmative action. New racists do not display overt racism, but when provided with a rationale, they will use business justifications as excuses to deny employment to Blacks. In a laboratory study, Art Brief and his colleagues investigated whether explicit instructions from "company officials" to discriminate against Blacks would be followed. The business justifications provided were that the company president believed it was important to (1) continue the good relationships built by the previous (White) job incumbent, (2) keep the marketing teams as homogeneous as possible, or (3) match the newly hired employee to the race of the majority of clients in the assigned territory base. Study par-ticipants who had high scores on the new racism scale were likely to avoid hiring quali-fied Blacks when provided with this "business justification." In nearly 40% of the cases, those participants chose an unqualified White instead of a qualified Black, a finding con-sistent with actual legal cases in which companies pass overqualified minorities for less or unqualified Whites, or qualified women for less or unqualified men."

What is social identity? How is it similar to Dworkin and Dworkin's conceptualization of the development of group awareness?

"Social identity refers to the part of an individual's self-concept that derives from their membership in a particular social group and the value and emotional significance attached to that group membership. Using race as an example, social identity describes how much a person identifies as a member of a certain race and how strongly and passionately they feel about belonging to that race. Is being Black integral to one's life, experiences, and being? For sex as a characteristic, social identity describes how much a person identifies as a man or woman and how strongly and passionately they feel about being a man or woman. For deafness, is being deaf central to one's life, experiences, and being? Social identity is in some ways similar to Dworkin and Dworkin's conceptualization of the development of group awareness for non-dominant group members. Those who see that they belong to a particular group and that the group receives pejorative treatment by others (out-groups) become aware of their group membership as a collective body able to take resistive action.

What is sterotype threat?

"Stereotype threat is related to the effects of negative messages about one's group and occurs when one is concerned about being judged by a negative stereotype about one's group. Stereotype threat has deleterious effects on performance in a variety of situations. Multiple studies have shown that priming of one's group membership influences perfor-mance on relevant tasks, including women's math performance, Blacks', Latinos', and ""poor people's standardized test performance, and White men's athletic performance, among others.49 In addition to performing more poorly, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce women's learning and retention of math skills, which has long-term individual and societal consequences."

Attribution error with women in managerial positions. What happens?

"Taking women as another example, if a decision maker holds the stereotype that women do not have the requisite managerial skills, a woman who expresses interest in advancing in an organization and is highly successful in assessment center exercises would still be disadvantaged by that stereotypical perception. A successful woman would be viewed as an anomaly, and her success would be attributed to external factors (the organization's desire to increase representation of women in management, affirmative action, or physical attractiveness), rather than to her personal strengths and motivation. Were she to enter management and fail, this confirmatory failure would be attributed to her (and women) not having the skills requisite to manage. In actuality, her failure may be related to the failure of management to provide training, mentoring, and encouragement due to holding stereotypes about women managers."

Non-dominant groups as the in-group. Name some examples and what typically happens.

"When non-dominant groups are the in-group, the results of the social categorization of people into in-groups and out-groups are different. Women, for example, may view other women as having positive attributes and prefer them to men. They may attribute positive behaviors to the characteristics of women and negative behaviors to circumstances in which women find themselves. They may attribute negative behaviors to the characteristics of men and positive behaviors to circumstances. Similarly, Black, Hispanic, Asian, and Native American people may attribute positive characteristics to themselves and negative characteristics to Whites. As discussed earlier, a key difference for women, racial and ethnic minorities, people with disabilities, and other non-dominant group members as in-groups is their generally lower access to power. Because non-dominant group members are less likely to be in positions of power, despite what they might believe about dominant group members, non-dominant group members are less likely to be able to discriminate against men, Whites, people without disabilities, and other dominant group members.1It is also possible that non-dominant group members may hold stereotypes about members of their own groups. Instead of favoring members of their own in-groups, they may stereotype them and view the dominant group as more likely to have positive attributes."

What is consumer racial profiling?

"consumer racial profiling is differential treatment of consumers in the marketplace based on race/ethnicity that constitutes a denial of or degradation in the products and/or services that are offered to the consumer. Feature 2.3 provides an example of how consumer racial profiling can result in lost business both from customers who are profiled and from other customers who are displeased by others' mistreatment." "individuals, such as Mr. Pitts, clearly suffer from consumer racial profiling, but organizations experience negative consequences not only from lost business, but also from shrinkage due to stereotyping and consumer racial profiling as a means to control theft. For example, a common fear is that young people, particularly minorities, are likely shoplifters. In a large study in an Atlanta store, however, unobtrusive observers documented who was stealing by race, sex, and age category. They found that shoppers aged 35-54 were most likely to steal and that non-Whites and Whites were equally likely to steal. People who exhibited certain behaviors were most likely to be shoplifters: leaving the store without making a purchase, scanning the premises looking for surveillance cameras, and tampering with products.52 Ironically, consumer racial profiling may increase crime by those not targeted, but who are aware of the targeting of other groups.

PPT: Social Identity Theory (SIT; Tajfel, 1982)- What is social identity? What is ingroup bias? What is SIT 's underlying motive? What are some examples?

-Social identity refers to the part of an individual's self-concept that derived from his or her membership in a particular social category, and the value and emotional significance attached to that group membership. -"Ingroup bias" is the especially positive feelings and special treatment we reserve for people we have defined as part of our in-group. -SIT postulates that the underlying motive behind in-group bias is self-esteem maintenance and enhancement. e.g. Jane Elliot "Brown Eyes, Blue Eyes" e.g., BiRGing https://youtu.be/0YOTxammRTw

Anthony and Rosalind Dworkin proposed that minorities have what 4 characteristics?

Anthony and Rosalind Dworkin proposed that minority group members have four common characteristics: identifiability, differential power, the experience of discrimination, and group awareness.

What are allies?

Allies are dominant group members and others not being uniquely oppressed in a particular circumstance who work to end oppression through their support of and advocacy for those who are oppressed.62 Allies can come from a variety of areas in which there are dominant and non-dominant groups, including race (Whites), sex (male), sexual orientation (straight), gender identity (cisgender), religion (Christian, in the United States), and others. Allies can also be non-dominant group members acting in solidarity with others who are oppressed, such as African Americans supporting asians and vice-versa

Define Minority

Although the term minority is generally understood to mean "fewer in number," it does not always refer to groups that are numerically fewer than majority group members. What, then, is a minority? Minority or non-dominant group members are those subordinated to majority or dominant group members in terms of power, prestige, and privilege. In South Africa, for example, Whites are the dominant group, although they are outnumbered by people of color. In the United States, women outnumber men, but men are the dominant group. Non-dominant, then, is a more accurate term than minority

Analysis of the Characteristics- what are four and what do they help clarify? Taylor Cox labels these situations as what?

Although these characteristics—identifiability, differential power, discrimination, and group awareness—do in many cases help clarify which groups are minority groups, they are by no means definitive. At times, they do not apply to some non-dominant groups or are otherwise insufficient, such as for those with invisible identities and for individuals "with power who are also non-dominant group members (e.g., a Chief Executive Officer (CEO) who is a woman of color). In other situations, there are disconnects between the group to which a person appears to belong and their self-identity. Taylor Cox labels these situations as incongruence of phenotype (visible identity) and culture identities,15such as a Mexican American with Caucasian physical features who identifies with the Mexican American culture. This creates cognitive dissonance for observers that may cause discomfort or even negative reactions. In the chapters that discuss individual groups, we will analyze further the applicability of these four criteria to those groups

What is Ambivalent sexism?

Ambivalent sexism is the simultaneous holding of both hostile ("women are incom-petent at work") and "benevolent" ("women must be protected") sexist beliefs about women.

What is aversive racism?

Aversive racism occurs when those who ostensibly adhere to egalitarian values and believe themselves to be unprejudiced still possess negative feelings and beliefs about racial issues and minority group members.

PPT: Social Identity: BiRGing (Cialdini et al. 1976)- What did Cialdini et at. (1976) find?

Basking in the Reflected Glory of the Group's Accomplishments (BiRGing) Cialdini et at. (1976) found that the Monday after a football win, supporters in Intro Psych were more likely to be seen wearing college insignia and clothing than after defeats.

Identifiability- For subordinating systems to work, what must happen? Give some examples.

For subordinating systems to work, minority and majority group members must possess distinguishing physical or cultural traits that make it possible to single them out for differential treatment. If members of non-dominant groups were not identifiable, differential treatment would be difficult or impossible. Historical records suggest that dominant groups devise means to identify non-dominant groups if the members have no distinguishing features. As an example, in Nazi Germany, Jews were required to wear yellow armbands to distinguish them from non-Jews. In the US being a woman or race is an easily identifiable example.

Define Group Awareness. Name some examples.

Group awareness, the final characteristic of minority groups proposed by Dworkin and Dworkin, is one consequence of their subordination by the majority and its discriminatory practices. The unfair treatment minority groups experience leads them to realize that they are subjected to differential treatment simply because of their group membership and that this treatment is a result of the majority's definitions and evaluations rather than due to intrinsic qualities or actions of their group. They may also realize that they can achieve certain goals (e.g., housing, jobs, and voting rights) through cooperative resistance (such as protests, boycotts, and participation in the political process). The Civil Rights, women's rights, gay rights, Black Lives Matter, and #MeToo movements are examples of ways in which group awareness produced activism and attainment of some goals

Characteristics of Minorities- four characteristics- what is a stigma?

Identifiability: •Distinguishable and readily apparent differences in physical or cultural traits •Stigma: Deviations from the desired norm in a certain context Differential power: ••Permits those who have more power to control those who have less power ••Enables powerful groups to control access to education, employment, food, health care, income, and voting rights Discrimination: •Differential and pejorative actions that serve to limit the social, political, or economic opportunities of members of particular groups Group awareness: •Consequence of subordination and discrimination •May also result in resistance and activism

What is benevolent sexism?

Is defined as a set of interrelated attitudes toward women that are sexist and at the same time perceived as positive by the attitude holder Benevolent sexism might be manifested by comments to a female coworker on her appearance, which could undermine her being taken seriously at work, or by finishing her sentences, which could make her appear timid and unassertive. Although benevolent sexism is viewed less negatively than hostile sexism, it is still detrimental to women

What are identity groups? What are salient characteristics? Give some examples. What is Beverly Daniel Tatum's book?

Identity groups are the collectivities that people use to categorize themselves and others. Depending on the situation and what factor is salient, or distinctive, a person's in-group may be based on their race, sex, age, or another identifying factor of importance. Salient characteristics are important to an individual at a particular time, or at all times, depending on how critical the characteristic is to the individual's experiences and life. For example, in a department with three women and ten men, the in-group for the women would be women and the out-group would be men. If the department had one Black man and one Black woman and 11 White men and women, in-groups and out-groups could instead be determined using racial categories. For a Black person in the United States, the race may be salient in an organization in which there are few Blacks or in an organization in which everyone is Black (if being in such an organization is unusual). Beverly Daniel Tatum's book Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? explains that the clustering of Blacks in the cafeterias of predominantly White educational institutions is obvious and disturbing to some observers.2"

Eduardo Bonilla-Silva and Tyrone Forman study

In another study assessing purported changes in racial attitudes, Eduardo Bonilla-Silva and Tyrone Forman hypothesized that research on changes in racial attitudes over-estimate the amount of positive change. Using data drawn from hundreds of university students (who are believed to be less prejudiced than those with less education), Bonilla-Silva and Forman found that students avoided the appearance of holding discriminatory beliefs in surveys, but interview data presented a different picture. "I'm not a racist ... but ..." preceded statements expressing hostile attitudes toward racial minorities; beliefs that minorities, rather than systematic discrimination, were responsible for their own situations; and belief in the existence of reverse discrimination, among other things. The researchers urged caution in concluding that racial attitudes were improving, suggesting that "colorblind racism" was replacing the expression of traditionally racist attitudes that are no longer widely accepted.

John Dovidio and Samuel Gaertner study where they documented the change in White participants' expression of prejudiced beliefs .

In one study, John Dovidio and Samuel Gaertner documented the change in White participants' expression of prejudiced beliefs over a ten-year period, finding significantly fewer instances in the later period. Even so, the researchers did find that, when making selection decisions, participants who expressed Introduction, Theoretical Background, and Legislation prejudicial beliefs (i.e., traditional racism) at both points were less likely to select Blacks, regardless of the qualifications of the Black candidates. Those who did not express prejudicial beliefs showed no differences in rates of recommendation when qualifications for either Blacks or Whites were particularly high. When qualifications were ambiguous—neither particularly strong, nor particularly weak—Whites were more frequently recommended than similarly qualified Blacks. Thus, when qualifications were strong and discrimination could be easily identified, aversive racists made similar recommendations for Blacks and Whites. When qualifications were ambiguous and decisions could be attributed to factors other than discrimination (e.g., "fit" or "personality"), aversive racists made fewer selection recommendations for Blacks. Dovidio and Gaertner suggested that this behavior may be based in part on attribution errors (discussed earlier) and reflective of Whites' tendency to give the benefit of the doubt to ambiguously qualified in-group members but not to out-group members. "

PPT: IN AND OUT-GROUP BIAS- what are three characteristics of being in the ingroup? What are 8 benefits of being in the ingroup at work? What are six disadvantages of being in the outgroup?

SELECTION TO THE IN-GROUP 1)Assume superior ability 2)Give more responsibility 3)Assume trustworthiness, and given trust IN-GROUP: •Assumed trustworthy, must lose trust • Like them more •Spend more time with leader •Given more challenging, visible jobs •Have better memory for good behavior •Treat warmly •Give positive performance evals •Allocate available rewards OUT-GROUP: •Must earn trust •Given less desirable jobs •Spend less time with supervisor •Treat more formally •Give lower performance evaluations •Allocated fewer rewards

What are stereotypes? What is prescriptive stereotyping? What is descriptive sterotyping?

Stereotypes are the overgeneralization of characteristics to large human groups and are often the basis for prejudice and discrimination. Prescriptive stereotyping refers to perceptions about how people should behave based on their group memberships (e.g., women should wear makeup), while descriptive stereotyping refers to ideas about how people do or will behave based on their group memberships (e.g., women are caring and are therefore appropriate as nurses and elementary school teachers). Fairly common job-related stereotypes about the groups we consider in the following chapters can be easily called to mind even by those who do not believe them or who are themselves members of the targeted groups. Some stereotypes reflect interactions among multiple groups, such as race, ethnicity, gender, and parental status. In a job-related context, stereotyping can prevent individuals who would be capable, committed workers from being hired, promoted, or trained.

PPT: "The Big Three"- negative things that can affect workers. What can we legislate? What can't we legislate?

Stereotypes-Cognitive-beliefs about the typical characteristics of group members Prejudice-Affective-negative feelings towards target group Discrimination-Behavioral-actions that disadvantage individuals simply because of their group membership. We can legislate behavior, but not stereotypes and prejudice.

PPT: Social Identity Theory- Define based on Tajfel's (1978) definition

Tajfel (1978) - the establishment of positive distinctiveness - It is assumed that our need for positive self-concept will result in a bias in these intergroup comparisons, so that you are more positive towards anything that your own group represents.

Social cognitive theory suggests what? What are some examples. What is social categorization?

That people use categorization to simplify and cope with the large volumes of information to which they are continually exposed. Categories al-low us to quickly and easily compartmentalize data. Consistent with Dworkin and Dworkin's proposals that minority group members must be identifiable, people often use visible characteristics, such as race, sex, and age, to categorize others. Thus, when one sees a person of a particular race, automatic processing occurs and beliefs about this particular race are activated. When the person is not visible but their name is known (perhaps on a résumé), this provides information about the person's sex, which allows categorization: male or female. Mental models of a person suited to a particular job (e.g., bank teller, truck driver) are often associated with sex, and sorting of candidates by sex occurs as a result of such models. A name may also provide evidence of a person's race or ethnic background, which could also allow categorization and discrimination (see Chapter 4). People's propensity to categorize, coupled with the need to then evaluate the person categorized, leads to stereotyping Along with the tendency to categorize, people tend to perceive themselves and others as belonging to particular groups. This part of categorization, referred to as social categorization, involves ordering one's social environment by groupings of persons. Social categorization helps create and define one's place in society. Groups define one's place by separating people: where we belong or do not belong and where others belong and do not belong. A person's in-group is the group to which they belong, while out-groups are groups to which they do not belong. "

What is similarity effect bias? In Major League Baseball, when not monitored, umpires are more likely to call what?

The documented existence of the similarity effect, a bias in which people are more likely to select, hire, or favor demographically similar others, is also a manifestation of in-group favoritism. Researchers have even documented the similarity effect in professional sports. In the National Basketball Association, researchers found that "more personal fouls are awarded against players when they are officiated by an opposite-race officiating crew than when they are officiated by an own-race refereeing crew. These biases are sufficiently large that they affect the outcome of an appreciable number of games. In Major League Baseball, when not monitored, umpires are more likely to call strikes when the umpire and the pitcher are of the same race/ethnicity. This propensity affects pitchers' performance, batters' behavior, and the outcome of games. The researchers speculated that when having umpires' decisions evaluated by others or technology, similarity preferences might no longer"

PPT: Social Categorization- What are identity groups?

The tendency of individuals to perceive themselves and others as belonging to particular groups--ordering one's social environment by groupings of persons. •Identity Groups •The collectivities people use to categorize themselves and others. •People belong to multiple groups that at times have different levels of salience. •Often readily apparent to others, strong sources of personal meaning, and related to historical disparities among groups in treatment, opportunities, and outcomes.

In-group favoritism vs out-group members. likely result of in-group favoritism in a work setting is? What is favoritism to one's group and is that negative?

There is often strong in-group favoritism and, at times, derogation of out-group members. Favoritism and viewing members of one's group positively bolster one's self-esteem, as does viewing other groups negatively. Alone, favoritism for one's particular group is not necessarily negative. When coupled with power, however, favoritism is associated with advantages for the in-group and negative opportunities and outcomes for the (lower status, less powerful) out-group. A likely result of in-group favoritism in a work setting is the hiring, promoting, rewarding, and retention by those in the power of members of their in-group. Even if no overt derogation of out-group members is involved, the non-dominant out-group is disadvantaged when the dominant in-group is favored. Because women and minorities are typically non-dominant in organizations, social categorization and in-group favoritism work against them, negatively affecting their chances for employment, high-status positions, pro-motion, and other opportunities when compared with Whites and men. Women and people of color often have relatively little organizational power; thus any favoritism they may feel toward women and people of color is less likely to disadvantage men and Whites.

PPT: Are stereotypes accurate?

There is usually more within-group variance than between-group variance on differences between groups, making prediction of any one Individual's preferences difficult using stereotypes. Just an example....x is your houseguest. What do you serve for dinner? a. Preferences of Americans for spicy food. b.Preferences of Mexicans for spicy food. c.Preferences of the Dutch for spicy food. Base our behavior on individuating information

Dominant vs non-dominant groups- give some examples

Whites represent the dominant group, while people of color are non-dominant group members. Throughout the world, men are the dominant sex, although women often outnumber men. Heterosexual is the dominant sexual orientation and people without disabilities are dominant compared to people with disabilities. Attractive people are dominant with respect to people deemed unattractive, and perceptions of attractiveness are shaped by dominant groups. Thinner people are dominant with respect to overweight people—although overweight people outnumber thinner people in the United States and increasingly in other nations. Whether younger or older workers are the dominant group is not clear, making research and generalizations about age diversity somewhat complicated.

Discrimination—The Behavioral Component- What happened in the price-waterhouse v hopkins case. Why are black people and white people not treated the same when it comes to war on drugs?

•Example: Blacks and whites not treated equally in the "war against drugs" •African Americans disproportionately arrested, convicted, and incarcerated for drug charges •Not subtle: •Disparate Treatment—Intentional discrimination based on membership in a protected class •e.g., Price-Waterhouse v. Hopkins (1989) After bringing in more business than any associate, Ann Hopkins was denied partnership because she was perceived as being to masculine. Her boss suggested makeup, more feminine clothing and charm school.

PPT: Can individuals control their own stereotypes and prejudice? What is situational attribution training?

•Impact categorical thinking with individuating information unique to the person. •Stereotypes may reduce motivation to understand the person accurately in an unbiased way. •Perspective taking reduces stereotype activation and application. •Exposure to counter-stereotypic examples or generating imagery of counter-stereotypes reduced stereotype activation. Extensive training in use of non-stereotypical categories works. Situational Attribution Training: practice seeking situational explanations for stereotypical behavior. Training to "consider the situation" reduced automatic activation of negative stereotypes.

PPT: Consequences of Social Categorization and Social Identity- What is the similarity effect? What are attribution errors? What power does the dominant group have? Can you be in-group an outgroup? What are multiple group memberships? Can minority stereotype their own group?

•In-group favoritism and out-group biases •Similarity effect: Bias in which individuals select and hire demographically similar others •Can be negated via structured interviews •Attribution errors: While evaluating others' behaviors: •Undermining the influence of external factors •Overestimating the influence of internal factors •In-group favoritism and out-group biases •Those in power (dominant groups) hire, promote, and reward members of their in-groups. •By favoring dominant in-group members, non-dominant group members are disadvantaged. •We all have overlapping multiple group memberships - make in-groups and out-groups and social identities complex •Multiple group memberships - Make in-group and out-group relationships and social identities complex •Non-dominant groups as the in-group •Minority groups may favor members of out-groups and stereotype their own group members

PPT: Discrimination Against Black Customers- Why is racial profiling and discrimination against customers due to social category membership bad business? Compared to qualified white people, what are black people more likely to receive?

•Loan rates and mortgage terms •Compared with similarly qualified Whites, Blacks more likely to receive loans with prepayment penalties and other unfavorable terms. Why is racial profiling and discrimination against customers due to social category membership bad business? Policies, training, and monitoring are effective tools in reducing many types of discrimination Lost business of Black customers and allies can be costly to organizations Blacks have more than a trillion dollars in buying power.

PPT: What are some dangers of stereotyping? Three items.

•May prevent us from learning unique information about a person which helps in developing enduring relationships. •May offend because it appears we are not paying attention. •May be inaccurate because generalizations for a group may not apply to any single individual.

Discrimination—The Behavioral Component Microaggressions- What are microaggressions? What are some examples?

•More subtle: Microaggressions •Slights, indignities and "putdowns" directed at minorities and people with disabilities. e.g., not making eye contact with a person in a wheel chair. •Microaggressions •"slights," indignities, and put-downs directed at minorities and people with disabilities •Ex: White professor compliments Asian student for his "excellent English" •Ex: Door locking at an intersection when a homeless person crosses the street.

PPT: Negative Consequences of Social Categorization and Social Identity- 5 items

•Negative consequences include: •Internalized racism: When members of devalued races believe negative messages about their intrinsic worth and that of others of the same race •Internalized sexism: When women believe negative messages about their intrinsic worth and that of other women •Stereotype threat: Occurs when one is concerned about being judged by a negative stereotype about one's group •Deleterious effects on performance •Consumer racial profiling: Differential treatment of consumers in the marketplace based on race/ethnicity

PPT: Brown v. Board of Education (1954) Desegregation of schools- What did the courts decree before this case? What did Chief Justice Earl Warren say? What happened in the clark and clark experiment?

•Prior to BvB, courts decreed "separate but equal" schools for black and white children. •Chief Justice Earl Warren said that the separation: "...generates a feeling of inferiority as to as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone." •Seminal to the court's ruling was a study by Clark & Clark (1947): • African American children did not show a preference for their own race in dolls. Recent research shows African American children show more preference for black dolls

PPT: Individual and Organizational Recommendations- 5 recommendations

•Reducing the Propensity to Stereotype •Lead aversive racists to see the inconsistencies in their behaviors and their stated values. •Engage group members in activities to achieve common, superordinate goals. •Encourage groups to perceive themselves as members of a single, superordinate group, rather than as two separate groups. •Implement organizational monitoring and control measures.

PPT: Define Schemas- Give some examples (3 types)

•Schemas are organized, structured sets of cognitions including knowledge about the object, relationships among its attributes, and specific examples •Person schemas (Ralph, the next door neighbor is not community-oriented) •Role schemas (e.g., Moms are warm) •Group schemas (stereotypes) (Martians are rude)

PPT: Salience and Social Identity- Is social identity contextual? Give some examples.

•Social Identity is contextual. e.g. Feel more like an American while living in France. •How scientific are psychologists? (depends on who is around. If psychologist with chemist biologist/ not as scientific. However compared to an artist, then they become scientific).

PPT: Social Categorization and Stereotyping- What is social categorization? What is social identity?

•Social categorization •Tendency to perceive oneself and others as belonging to particular groups •Involves creating order in one's social environment by groupings persons •Social identity: Part of an individual's self-concept that originates from: •His or her membership in a particular social group •Value and emotional significance attached to that group membership

PPT: Are stereotypes accurate? Give an example?

•Stereotypes at the group level may have a kernel of truth to them. •So for comparisons between groups, stereotypes are more accurate than comparisons of individuals within a group, or guessing the accurate level of the stereotype. •EX: It may be true that overall, Mexicans prefer hot, spicy food compared to Dutch people. But, that doesn't mean you would be right if you guessed what a specific Mexican

PPT: Stereotype activation- Can stereotypes be primed? Can it happen when person does not endorse stereotypical beliefs.

•Stereotypes can be primed subconsciously. •Racial stereotypes activated automatically upon detection of racial group membership •Devine says process occurs even if participant does not endorse stereotypical beliefs (others disagree)

PPT: Stereotypes- What is it? What is prescriptive and descriptive sterotypes?

•Stereotypes: Overgeneralization of characteristics to large groups of people •Prescriptive stereotyping: Ideas about how people should behave based on their group memberships- Example from online Prescribe how men and women should, or ought to be •Descriptive stereotypes: Ideas about how people do or will behave based on their group membership- Example from online- Describe stereotype beliefs about the attributes of women and men

What are stereotypes? What are personal stereotypes? What are cultural stereotypes? Give an example.

•Stereotypes: Overgeneralization of characteristics to large groups of people •Personal stereotypes: Cognitions of an individual about a group •Cultural stereotypes: shared understandings within a group about attributes of a social category •EX: Skateboarders

PPT: Stereotypes- What is it in relation to schemas? Give an example. What are defining attributes and how does it relate to schemas? Associated attributions may be more or less what to schemas?

•Stereotypes: Schemas of social categories that overgeneralization characteristics to members of that category •We classify into social categories based on some defining attribute •Associated attributes are traits and behaviors thought to also be true of the category members. •What is the defining attribute of a dog? •What are associated attributes? Schemas are "fuzzy sets" of associated attributes which define the category. Defining attributes are central to the schema with lots of connections between them. Associated attributions may be more or less peripheral to the schema.

PPT: Ingroups vs. Outgroups- What is ingroup/outgroup? How common is it? What is outgroup homogeneity effect?

•Strong tendency to divide people into ingroups and outgroups. •Exaggerate differences between ingroups and other outgroups •Outgroup homogeneity effect: "They" are all alike •We often do not notice subtle differences among outgroups because we have little personal contact with them. •We often do not encounter a representative sample of outgroup members.

PPT: Minorities and Non-Dominant Groups- What are common characteristics of being in a non-dominant/dominant group? Does dominant group mean majority? What are measures of dominant group members?

•Subordinated to majority or dominant group members in terms of power, prestige, and privilege •Does not necessarily mean groups that are numerically fewer than majority group members •Common characteristics include identifiability, differential power, experience of discrimination, and group awareness

PPT: When are we most likely to use stereotypes? 8 items.

•Under time pressure •Under complex demands (cognitive load) •When judgment not important •When we are not motivated to be accurate •When there is little individuating info •When we aren't paying attention •When we are tired •When we do not know people well

PPT: What is a cognitive miser? What are heuristics?

•We all are cognitive misers who simplify the world, making it easier to understand. •We use Heuristics: •short-cuts which shorten processing time and reduce cognitive load

PPT: What is a schema?

•We also categorize using schemas which simplify information "Little pictures we carry around in our head."

Devine (1989) 2-step process- What is it?

•When we process information about another, first the stereotypes that we know about are automatically triggered •in the controlled process we decide whether or not to accept the stereotype.

PPT: The Media and Stereotypes Disney

•https://youtu.be/LibK0SCpIkk?t=53 (Disney end after Dumbo) •https://youtu.be/7NDyaPaULAU?t=70 (Disney gender stereotypes stop 6:05) •Are these stereotypes from old Disney movies harmful? •Were they reinforcing/making stereotypes or simply a reflection of the culture at the time? • If we watch those movies now with our kids, are we perpetuating stereotypes? •What has Disney done to respond to criticism?

PPT: The Media and Stereotypes- How often do minorities show up as perpetrators on the news? Three items.

•over 14 weeks, minorities were shown as crime perpetrators in news reports about 20% more than they would have been if the news reports reflected FBI statistics. (30) •Although Whites comprise a greater proportion of arrests for drug-related crimes (67%), African Americans (31%) are more likely to be shown on television being arrested for such crimes. (31) •News reports are also more likely to portray Black on White crime, although most crime is intra-racial