Chapter 2: The Chemistry Of Life
Monomer
monomer is the identical or similar subunits of a larger molecule.
Colloids
colloids in the body are protein and water as well albumin and blood plasma
Dissachrides
dissachrides: lactose, sucrose, and maltose.
Water
most chemical mixtures in the body are suspended in water. (solvent)
Solute
Solute is particles of matter that are dissolved by another substance in a solution
buffers
substances that resist changes in pH are known as Buffers.
Polypeptide
the generic term used to describe any chain of fifteen or more amino acids joined together by peptide bonds is Polypeptide
..
the lock and key model describes the property of enzyme substrate specificity
Components of a triglyceride
three fatty acids and glycerol
Ionizing radiation
Ultraviolet light, x-rays, and radiation produced by nuclear decay are examples of ionizing radiation.
Compound
compound is a molecule composed of two or more different elements.
Concentration
concentration is expressed by percentages, molarity, and weight per volume
Conformation
conformation, three dimensional structure of a protein that results from interaction among its amino acid side groups, its interactions with water, and the formation of disulfide bonds
Mixture
consists of substances that are physically blended but not chemically bound.
Nucleotides
contain a phosphate, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
Properties of Colloid
contains particles smaller than 100 nm and suspended particles scatter light.
Covalent bond
covalent bond is formed by the sharing of two electrons between two atoms.
Decomposition
decomposition, breaks down a large molecule into smaller parts.
Dehydration synthesis reactions,
dehydration synthesis reactions, individual subunits are joined to form dimers and then larger macromolecules with the release of water molecules
Glucose
glucose (C6H12O6) is a compound and molecule
Glucose
glucose is a monosaccharide (C6H12O6) also known as blood sugar
Antioxidant
glutathione binds to reactive oxygen (free radicals) neutralizing them. therefore, glutathione is an antioxidant
Glycolysis
glycolysis produces pyruvate from glucose under aerobic and anaerobic conditions
Glycoprotein
glycoprotein is protein molecule bonded to much smaller carbohydrate molecule
Functional groups
groups of atoms that are added to carbon backbones and give them unique properties are known as functional groups.
Cation
has a net positive charge.
Electron
has a subatomic particle with a negative charge.
Free radical
has an up paired electron, making it highly reactive and destructive to cells.
Nucleic groups
have the phosphate functional group
Hydrolysis
hydrolysis breaks a covalent bond by adding an OH to one side of the molecule, and an H to the other side.
hydrophilic
hydrophilic attracts water or dissolve in it because of their polar nature.
Common functional groups:
hydroxyl, carboxyl, and amino
Minerals,
inorganic elements that are extracted from the soil by plants and passed up the food chain are known as minerals.
phosphorylation
inorganic phosphate (Pi) group to an organic molecule is known as phosphorylation
ionic bond
ionic bond is the type of chemical bond that entails the exchange of electrons.
Phospholipid
is a lipid which consists of two hydrophobic fatty acid tails and a hydrophilic phosphate head.
Proton
is a particle found in the nucleus that has a positive charge
Kinase
is any enzyme that adds an inorganic phosphate group to another organic molecule.
Chemical/Bond energy
is potential energy stored in bonds of molecules.
Calorie
is the amount of energy required to raise 1g of water by 1c .
Enzyme-substance complex
is the combining of the enzyme and its specific substrate forms an enzyme-substance complex.
Kinetic energy
kinetic energy is energy that is actively doing work
Molarity
molarity: takes into consideration the number of solute molecules.
molecular weight
molecular weight of a molecule is equal to the sum of the atomic weights, measured in atomic mass units, and useful for calculating concentrations.
Isomers
molecules with the same molecular formula but having different arrangements of their component atoms are known as isomers
Carbohydrates
monosaccharides, dissacchrides, and polysaccharides are all part of the family of macromolecules called carbohydrates.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a steriod that functions as part of the plasma membrane and as a precursor for all other steroids in the body
Physical Half-Life
one half of a quantity of a radioactive element to decay to a stable isotope.
Quaternary level
the quaternary level of protein structure is determine by the interactions between two or more polypeptide chains within a protein.
Potential energy
potential energy is energy in a system that is not being used to do work
Prostaglandin
prostaglandin is a common signaling molecule derived from a fatty acid.
prosthetic
prosthetic consists of non-amino acid moieties
Proteins
proteins act as receptors on cells' surfaces, proteins transport oxygen, and proteins catalyze chemical reactions.
Proteoglycans
proteoglycans, are large molecules composed of covalently-bonded carbohydrate and protein groups. These molecules usually serve as lubricants at joints or as a structural component of cartilage
Reduction reaction
reduction reaction a molecule gains one or more electrons
Solvent
saltwater is a solution of NACL in water. Water is the solvent.
saturated fatty acid
saturated fatty acid, a fatty acid containing as many hydro-gens as possible and in which the carbon-carbon bonds are all single bonds.
terms are used to express concentration:
terms are used to express concentration: molarity, percentages, and weight per volume
trace elements,
the 12 elements that together account for 0.7% of the body weight, with each accounting for no more than 0.02% are known as trace elements.
pH
the abbreviation pH indicates the measure of acidity which derived from the concentration of H+
Carbohydrate
the carbohydrate family of macromolecules are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio and include sugars, starches, glycogen, and cellulose.
Carbon
the element carbon is the foundation of biological molecules. it is able to form a wide variety of compounds because it has four valence electrons.
Activation energy
the energy required to initiate or begin a chemical reaction is called activation energy
Chemical reactions
the formation or degradation of molecules requires chemical reactions.
The law of mass action
the law of mass action states that reactions proceed from the side of the reaction with more reactants to the side with less products.
Mole
the number of molecules of a chemical that is equal to its molecular weight in grams is Mole
solvent
the particles of matter that dissolve another substance.
Radioactivity
the process of energy being released from the decay of unstable radioisotopes is called radioactivity
Hydrophobic
Hydrophobic means that a substance is insoluble in water
Catabolism,
break large molecules down into smaller ones
van der waals forces
brief attractions between neutral atoms
Proteins
amino acids are the subunits of larger molecules called proteins
Amphipathic
amphipathic refers to dual nature of phospholipids
Donor
an acid is a compound that acts a proton donor.
Proteins
an alpha helix is an example of secondary structure found in the type of organic molecule called proteins
Ion
an atom that gains or loses electrons is called a ion
Properties of water allowing it to support life:
chemical reactivity, solvency, and cohesion
Steroids
cholesterol, estrogen, and testosterone are examples of the type of lipid called steroids.
Free Energy
free energy is the potential energy available in a system to do work
Monosaccharides
fructose, galactose, and glucose
Polyunsaturated
polyunsaturated is a fatty acid that has two or more double bonds within its carbon chain.
Beta sheet
Beta sheet the secondary structure of proteins that has a pleated, ribbonlike shape
Fatty acid molecule
A fatty acid molecule consists of a carbon chain, with 4 to 24 carbons, with a methyl group on one end and a carboxyl group on the opposite end.
glycogen.
A glucose polymer synthesized by liver, muscle, uterine, and vaginal cells that serves as an energy storage polysaccharides is glycogen.
Glycolipid
A glycolipid is a phospholipid molecule with a carbohydrate covalently bonded to it. It can be found in the plasma membrane of cells.
Hydrogen bond
A hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between a slightly positive region of one atom and a slightly negative region of another.
Lipid
A hydrophobic organic compound composed mainly of carbon and a high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is a Lipid. Examples include fatty acids, fats, phospholipids, steriods, and prostaglandins.
Ionic
A ionic bond is the type of chemical bond that entails the exchange of electrons.
Solution
A solution consists of a solute dissolved in a solvent
Monomer
A starch molecule may contain thousands of smaller glucose subunits. Glucose is the monomer of starch.
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate is composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups that functions as a universal energy-transfer molecule.
Electrolyte
An electrolyte disscociates in water and produces a solution that can conduct electricity.
Catalyst
Catalyst increases the reaction rate.
Different types of lipids
Different types of lipids: eicosanoids, phospholipids, fatty acids, steriods, triglycerides.
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides can be broken down into monosaccharides.
Elements that account for 98.5% of the body weight:
Elements that account for 98.5% of the body weight: phosphorous, hydrogen, calcium, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Equilibrium
Equilibrium the ratio of products and reactants are stable
input of energy.
Formation of adenosine triphosphate from adenosine diphosphate and an inorganic phosphate molecule requires the input of energy.
Lipoprotein
Lipoprotien a protein coated lipid droplet in the blood plasma or lymph, serving as a means of lipid transport, is called a
Amphiphilic
Molecules described as amphiphilic, such as phospholipids, contain both a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic region
Macromolecules and polymers.
Multiple part molecules of carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids are examples of macromolecules. they are also referred to as polymers.
Nucleic acid
Nucleic acid is an acidic polymer of nucleotides, found or produced in the nucleus, that functions in heredity and protein synthesis.
Oxidation reaction
Oxidation reaction a molecule loses one or more electrons.
Primary
Primary is the level of protein structure that is determined by the amino acid sequence of the protein.
Proteins
Proteins plays a role in cell structure, communication (hormones and neurotransmitters), membrane transport, catalysis (enzymes), recognition and protection (immune factors), movement (contractile molecules), and cell adhension.
Starch
Starch is the only plant polysaccharide digestible in the human diet.
Substrate
Substrate is the name of the substance that enzyme acts upon
The molecular weight of a molecule:
The molecular weight of a molecule is equal to the sum of the atomic weights, useful for calculating concentrations, and measure in atomic mass units.
Base
a base is a chemical that binds protons in a solution and functions as a proton acceptor.
denaturation
a change in the three dimensional conformation of a protein destroys its functional properties is known as a denaturation
Synthesis
a chemical reaction in which two or more smaller molecules combine to form a larger molecule would be synthesis
Chemical reaction
a chemical reaction is a process in which a covalent or ionic bond is broken or formed.
Coenzyme
a coenzyme is a small organic molecule that is needed for an enzyme to work properly
cofactor
a cofactor is a nonprotein, such as a metal ion or coenzyme, that is needed for some enzymes to function
Polar covalent bond
a covalent bond in which the electrons are not equally shared is a polar covalent bond
Adenosine monophosphate
a cyclic molecule produced from atp (losing two phosphate groups) which serves as a second messenger in many hormone and neurotransmitter actions is cyclic Adenosine monophosphate
Chemical bond
a force due to the sharing or transfer of electrons is a chemical bond
tertiary structure
a globular three dimensional protein, consisting of a single chain, is in its tertiary structure
Ligand
a hormone binds reversibly to a protein on the surface of a cell, eliciting a response within the cell. in this example the hormone is acting as an ligand
Hydrogen bond
a hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between a slightly POSITIVE hydrogen atom of one molecule and a slightly NEGATIVE oxygen or nitrogen atom of another.
Polymer
a large molecule that consists of many identical or similar subunits, such as protein, DNA, or starch is a(n) polymer
Triglycerides
a lipid composed of three fatty acids joined to a glycerol is a(n)
proteoglycan
a molecule composed predominatly of a carbon covalently bonded to a smaller protein component is a(n) proteoglycan
Molecule
a molecule may be composed of one element or more than one element.
Anion
a negatively charged ion is call an anion.
Phospholipid
a phospholipid is a lipid which consists of two hydrophobic fatty acid tails and hydrophillic phosphate head.
Conformation
a protein that undergoes a change in shape has had a change in its three dimensional shape or its conformation
Acid
a proton H+ donor, or a chemical that releases protons into solution, is an acid
Metabolic pathway
a series of reactions where each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme is called an metabolic pathway
Monosaccharide
a simple sugar or a sugar monomer.
Covalent bond
a single covalent bond involves one pair(s) of shared electrons.
Biological polymers
biological polymers are produced by the process of dehydration synthesis, also known as condensation reactions.
Solution
a solution is defined as particles of dissolved matter and the substance they are dissolved in.
Molecular weight
adding together the atomic weight of all atoms in a molecule gives a value known as its molecular weight
Phosphorylation
addition of an inorganic phosphate (Pi) group to an organic molecule.
Adipose tissue
adipose tissue is responsible for cushioning, energy storage, and insulation
milliequivalents
an equivalent is the amount of an electrolyte that would neutralize 1 mole of H+ or OH-. Typical electrolyte concentrations are one thousandths of an equivalent. Therefore, electrolyte concentrations are commonly expressed in milliequivalents per liter.
Energy
an input energy of is required for a system to perform work
Nucleotide
an organic molecule composed of a nitrogenous base, a monosaccharide, and a phosphate group, and is the monomer of nucleic acid, is called a(n) nucleotide
Oxidizing agent
an oxidizing agent accepts electrons from a donor molecule during an oxidation-reduction reaction
antioxidant
antioxidant is a chemical that neutralizes free radicals
Kinases
are enzymes hat are responsible for the phospharylation of organic molecules
Valence electrons
are found in the outer most shell.
Saturated fatty acids
are saturated with hydro gens of each carbon. They do not double bond/
Anabolic reactions
are usually endergonic
Isotopes
atoms of the same element that differ only in the number of neutrons are known as isotopes.
Catobolic
catabolic reactions are usually exergonic
Catalysts,
catalysts, holds reactants in such as way as to favor their reaction, are not consumed by the reaction, and may bind to reactants and bring them into proximity.
Cellulose
cellulose is the structure polysaccharide found in plant cells.
Oxidation-reduction reaction
electrons are transferred between molecules.
Element
element is a pure chemical substance which consists of one type of atom.
Enzyme
enzyme is a protein that functions as a biological catalyst.
Methyl functional group
fats, oils, steroids, amino acids.
fatty acids
fatty acids contain both a(n) carboxyl group and a(n) methyl group.
Lipids
lipids are hydrophobic molecules that consist of a much lower proportion of oxygen than do carbohydrates
Guano-sine triphosphate
may donate a phosphate to help regenerate atp and is a nucleotide.
Anabolism
metabolic reactions that use energy and build more complex molecules from less complex molecules are examples of anabolism
Metabolism
metabolism refers to the sum of all the chemical reactions in the body.
Metabolism
metabolism: includes reactions where molecules are broken down, includes reactions where new molecules are synthesized, and sum of all the chemical reactions in the body.
Factors that affect enzyme conformation
pH and temperature
Neutron
particle found in the nucleus that has a neutral charge.
Peptide bond
peptide bond is the bonds between amino acids in a protein.
Polymers
polymers formed of many sugars are classified as complex carbohydrates or polysaccharides.
proteins
polypeptides over 100 amino acids
Solution
solution consists of a solute dissolved in a solvent.
Essential fatty acid
some fatty acids must be obtained from the diet because the body cannot synthesize them. the term given to this group of compound is Essential fatty acid.
Suspension
suspension, with blood cells in the plasma, is a biological example of a suspension
Secondary level
the secondary level of protein structure is determined by the folding of the protein due to hydrogen bonding between amino acids to form alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets.
Alpha helix
the secondary structure of proteins that has a spiral shape.
Biochemistry
the study of the molecules and chemical reactions that occur in living cells is known as Biochemistry
Active site
the substrate-binding site of an enzyme is known as the active site.
Emulsion
the suspension of fats in water is an example of an emulsion
Exchange reaction
trades atoms between molecules.
Reversible chemical reaction
two reactants, a and b, combine to form product c. under the correct conditions, c can degrade back to a and b.
protons and neutrons
two subatomic particles that contribute to the mass of an atom is Proton and Neutrons. (electrons have little mass)
