Chapter 2: The Chemistry Of Life

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Monomer

monomer is the identical or similar subunits of a larger molecule.

Colloids

colloids in the body are protein and water as well albumin and blood plasma

Dissachrides

dissachrides: lactose, sucrose, and maltose.

Water

most chemical mixtures in the body are suspended in water. (solvent)

Solute

Solute is particles of matter that are dissolved by another substance in a solution

buffers

substances that resist changes in pH are known as Buffers.

Polypeptide

the generic term used to describe any chain of fifteen or more amino acids joined together by peptide bonds is Polypeptide

..

the lock and key model describes the property of enzyme substrate specificity

Components of a triglyceride

three fatty acids and glycerol

Ionizing radiation

Ultraviolet light, x-rays, and radiation produced by nuclear decay are examples of ionizing radiation.

Compound

compound is a molecule composed of two or more different elements.

Concentration

concentration is expressed by percentages, molarity, and weight per volume

Conformation

conformation, three dimensional structure of a protein that results from interaction among its amino acid side groups, its interactions with water, and the formation of disulfide bonds

Mixture

consists of substances that are physically blended but not chemically bound.

Nucleotides

contain a phosphate, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

Properties of Colloid

contains particles smaller than 100 nm and suspended particles scatter light.

Covalent bond

covalent bond is formed by the sharing of two electrons between two atoms.

Decomposition

decomposition, breaks down a large molecule into smaller parts.

Dehydration synthesis reactions,

dehydration synthesis reactions, individual subunits are joined to form dimers and then larger macromolecules with the release of water molecules

Glucose

glucose (C6H12O6) is a compound and molecule

Glucose

glucose is a monosaccharide (C6H12O6) also known as blood sugar

Antioxidant

glutathione binds to reactive oxygen (free radicals) neutralizing them. therefore, glutathione is an antioxidant

Glycolysis

glycolysis produces pyruvate from glucose under aerobic and anaerobic conditions

Glycoprotein

glycoprotein is protein molecule bonded to much smaller carbohydrate molecule

Functional groups

groups of atoms that are added to carbon backbones and give them unique properties are known as functional groups.

Cation

has a net positive charge.

Electron

has a subatomic particle with a negative charge.

Free radical

has an up paired electron, making it highly reactive and destructive to cells.

Nucleic groups

have the phosphate functional group

Hydrolysis

hydrolysis breaks a covalent bond by adding an OH to one side of the molecule, and an H to the other side.

hydrophilic

hydrophilic attracts water or dissolve in it because of their polar nature.

Common functional groups:

hydroxyl, carboxyl, and amino

Minerals,

inorganic elements that are extracted from the soil by plants and passed up the food chain are known as minerals.

phosphorylation

inorganic phosphate (Pi) group to an organic molecule is known as phosphorylation

ionic bond

ionic bond is the type of chemical bond that entails the exchange of electrons.

Phospholipid

is a lipid which consists of two hydrophobic fatty acid tails and a hydrophilic phosphate head.

Proton

is a particle found in the nucleus that has a positive charge

Kinase

is any enzyme that adds an inorganic phosphate group to another organic molecule.

Chemical/Bond energy

is potential energy stored in bonds of molecules.

Calorie

is the amount of energy required to raise 1g of water by 1c .

Enzyme-substance complex

is the combining of the enzyme and its specific substrate forms an enzyme-substance complex.

Kinetic energy

kinetic energy is energy that is actively doing work

Molarity

molarity: takes into consideration the number of solute molecules.

molecular weight

molecular weight of a molecule is equal to the sum of the atomic weights, measured in atomic mass units, and useful for calculating concentrations.

Isomers

molecules with the same molecular formula but having different arrangements of their component atoms are known as isomers

Carbohydrates

monosaccharides, dissacchrides, and polysaccharides are all part of the family of macromolecules called carbohydrates.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a steriod that functions as part of the plasma membrane and as a precursor for all other steroids in the body

Physical Half-Life

one half of a quantity of a radioactive element to decay to a stable isotope.

Quaternary level

the quaternary level of protein structure is determine by the interactions between two or more polypeptide chains within a protein.

Potential energy

potential energy is energy in a system that is not being used to do work

Prostaglandin

prostaglandin is a common signaling molecule derived from a fatty acid.

prosthetic

prosthetic consists of non-amino acid moieties

Proteins

proteins act as receptors on cells' surfaces, proteins transport oxygen, and proteins catalyze chemical reactions.

Proteoglycans

proteoglycans, are large molecules composed of covalently-bonded carbohydrate and protein groups. These molecules usually serve as lubricants at joints or as a structural component of cartilage

Reduction reaction

reduction reaction a molecule gains one or more electrons

Solvent

saltwater is a solution of NACL in water. Water is the solvent.

saturated fatty acid

saturated fatty acid, a fatty acid containing as many hydro-gens as possible and in which the carbon-carbon bonds are all single bonds.

terms are used to express concentration:

terms are used to express concentration: molarity, percentages, and weight per volume

trace elements,

the 12 elements that together account for 0.7% of the body weight, with each accounting for no more than 0.02% are known as trace elements.

pH

the abbreviation pH indicates the measure of acidity which derived from the concentration of H+

Carbohydrate

the carbohydrate family of macromolecules are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio and include sugars, starches, glycogen, and cellulose.

Carbon

the element carbon is the foundation of biological molecules. it is able to form a wide variety of compounds because it has four valence electrons.

Activation energy

the energy required to initiate or begin a chemical reaction is called activation energy

Chemical reactions

the formation or degradation of molecules requires chemical reactions.

The law of mass action

the law of mass action states that reactions proceed from the side of the reaction with more reactants to the side with less products.

Mole

the number of molecules of a chemical that is equal to its molecular weight in grams is Mole

solvent

the particles of matter that dissolve another substance.

Radioactivity

the process of energy being released from the decay of unstable radioisotopes is called radioactivity

Hydrophobic

Hydrophobic means that a substance is insoluble in water

Catabolism,

break large molecules down into smaller ones

van der waals forces

brief attractions between neutral atoms

Proteins

amino acids are the subunits of larger molecules called proteins

Amphipathic

amphipathic refers to dual nature of phospholipids

Donor

an acid is a compound that acts a proton donor.

Proteins

an alpha helix is an example of secondary structure found in the type of organic molecule called proteins

Ion

an atom that gains or loses electrons is called a ion

Properties of water allowing it to support life:

chemical reactivity, solvency, and cohesion

Steroids

cholesterol, estrogen, and testosterone are examples of the type of lipid called steroids.

Free Energy

free energy is the potential energy available in a system to do work

Monosaccharides

fructose, galactose, and glucose

Polyunsaturated

polyunsaturated is a fatty acid that has two or more double bonds within its carbon chain.

Beta sheet

Beta sheet the secondary structure of proteins that has a pleated, ribbonlike shape

Fatty acid molecule

A fatty acid molecule consists of a carbon chain, with 4 to 24 carbons, with a methyl group on one end and a carboxyl group on the opposite end.

glycogen.

A glucose polymer synthesized by liver, muscle, uterine, and vaginal cells that serves as an energy storage polysaccharides is glycogen.

Glycolipid

A glycolipid is a phospholipid molecule with a carbohydrate covalently bonded to it. It can be found in the plasma membrane of cells.

Hydrogen bond

A hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between a slightly positive region of one atom and a slightly negative region of another.

Lipid

A hydrophobic organic compound composed mainly of carbon and a high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is a Lipid. Examples include fatty acids, fats, phospholipids, steriods, and prostaglandins.

Ionic

A ionic bond is the type of chemical bond that entails the exchange of electrons.

Solution

A solution consists of a solute dissolved in a solvent

Monomer

A starch molecule may contain thousands of smaller glucose subunits. Glucose is the monomer of starch.

Adenosine triphosphate

Adenosine triphosphate is composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups that functions as a universal energy-transfer molecule.

Electrolyte

An electrolyte disscociates in water and produces a solution that can conduct electricity.

Catalyst

Catalyst increases the reaction rate.

Different types of lipids

Different types of lipids: eicosanoids, phospholipids, fatty acids, steriods, triglycerides.

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides can be broken down into monosaccharides.

Elements that account for 98.5% of the body weight:

Elements that account for 98.5% of the body weight: phosphorous, hydrogen, calcium, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen.

Equilibrium

Equilibrium the ratio of products and reactants are stable

input of energy.

Formation of adenosine triphosphate from adenosine diphosphate and an inorganic phosphate molecule requires the input of energy.

Lipoprotein

Lipoprotien a protein coated lipid droplet in the blood plasma or lymph, serving as a means of lipid transport, is called a

Amphiphilic

Molecules described as amphiphilic, such as phospholipids, contain both a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic region

Macromolecules and polymers.

Multiple part molecules of carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids are examples of macromolecules. they are also referred to as polymers.

Nucleic acid

Nucleic acid is an acidic polymer of nucleotides, found or produced in the nucleus, that functions in heredity and protein synthesis.

Oxidation reaction

Oxidation reaction a molecule loses one or more electrons.

Primary

Primary is the level of protein structure that is determined by the amino acid sequence of the protein.

Proteins

Proteins plays a role in cell structure, communication (hormones and neurotransmitters), membrane transport, catalysis (enzymes), recognition and protection (immune factors), movement (contractile molecules), and cell adhension.

Starch

Starch is the only plant polysaccharide digestible in the human diet.

Substrate

Substrate is the name of the substance that enzyme acts upon

The molecular weight of a molecule:

The molecular weight of a molecule is equal to the sum of the atomic weights, useful for calculating concentrations, and measure in atomic mass units.

Base

a base is a chemical that binds protons in a solution and functions as a proton acceptor.

denaturation

a change in the three dimensional conformation of a protein destroys its functional properties is known as a denaturation

Synthesis

a chemical reaction in which two or more smaller molecules combine to form a larger molecule would be synthesis

Chemical reaction

a chemical reaction is a process in which a covalent or ionic bond is broken or formed.

Coenzyme

a coenzyme is a small organic molecule that is needed for an enzyme to work properly

cofactor

a cofactor is a nonprotein, such as a metal ion or coenzyme, that is needed for some enzymes to function

Polar covalent bond

a covalent bond in which the electrons are not equally shared is a polar covalent bond

Adenosine monophosphate

a cyclic molecule produced from atp (losing two phosphate groups) which serves as a second messenger in many hormone and neurotransmitter actions is cyclic Adenosine monophosphate

Chemical bond

a force due to the sharing or transfer of electrons is a chemical bond

tertiary structure

a globular three dimensional protein, consisting of a single chain, is in its tertiary structure

Ligand

a hormone binds reversibly to a protein on the surface of a cell, eliciting a response within the cell. in this example the hormone is acting as an ligand

Hydrogen bond

a hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between a slightly POSITIVE hydrogen atom of one molecule and a slightly NEGATIVE oxygen or nitrogen atom of another.

Polymer

a large molecule that consists of many identical or similar subunits, such as protein, DNA, or starch is a(n) polymer

Triglycerides

a lipid composed of three fatty acids joined to a glycerol is a(n)

proteoglycan

a molecule composed predominatly of a carbon covalently bonded to a smaller protein component is a(n) proteoglycan

Molecule

a molecule may be composed of one element or more than one element.

Anion

a negatively charged ion is call an anion.

Phospholipid

a phospholipid is a lipid which consists of two hydrophobic fatty acid tails and hydrophillic phosphate head.

Conformation

a protein that undergoes a change in shape has had a change in its three dimensional shape or its conformation

Acid

a proton H+ donor, or a chemical that releases protons into solution, is an acid

Metabolic pathway

a series of reactions where each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme is called an metabolic pathway

Monosaccharide

a simple sugar or a sugar monomer.

Covalent bond

a single covalent bond involves one pair(s) of shared electrons.

Biological polymers

biological polymers are produced by the process of dehydration synthesis, also known as condensation reactions.

Solution

a solution is defined as particles of dissolved matter and the substance they are dissolved in.

Molecular weight

adding together the atomic weight of all atoms in a molecule gives a value known as its molecular weight

Phosphorylation

addition of an inorganic phosphate (Pi) group to an organic molecule.

Adipose tissue

adipose tissue is responsible for cushioning, energy storage, and insulation

milliequivalents

an equivalent is the amount of an electrolyte that would neutralize 1 mole of H+ or OH-. Typical electrolyte concentrations are one thousandths of an equivalent. Therefore, electrolyte concentrations are commonly expressed in milliequivalents per liter.

Energy

an input energy of is required for a system to perform work

Nucleotide

an organic molecule composed of a nitrogenous base, a monosaccharide, and a phosphate group, and is the monomer of nucleic acid, is called a(n) nucleotide

Oxidizing agent

an oxidizing agent accepts electrons from a donor molecule during an oxidation-reduction reaction

antioxidant

antioxidant is a chemical that neutralizes free radicals

Kinases

are enzymes hat are responsible for the phospharylation of organic molecules

Valence electrons

are found in the outer most shell.

Saturated fatty acids

are saturated with hydro gens of each carbon. They do not double bond/

Anabolic reactions

are usually endergonic

Isotopes

atoms of the same element that differ only in the number of neutrons are known as isotopes.

Catobolic

catabolic reactions are usually exergonic

Catalysts,

catalysts, holds reactants in such as way as to favor their reaction, are not consumed by the reaction, and may bind to reactants and bring them into proximity.

Cellulose

cellulose is the structure polysaccharide found in plant cells.

Oxidation-reduction reaction

electrons are transferred between molecules.

Element

element is a pure chemical substance which consists of one type of atom.

Enzyme

enzyme is a protein that functions as a biological catalyst.

Methyl functional group

fats, oils, steroids, amino acids.

fatty acids

fatty acids contain both a(n) carboxyl group and a(n) methyl group.

Lipids

lipids are hydrophobic molecules that consist of a much lower proportion of oxygen than do carbohydrates

Guano-sine triphosphate

may donate a phosphate to help regenerate atp and is a nucleotide.

Anabolism

metabolic reactions that use energy and build more complex molecules from less complex molecules are examples of anabolism

Metabolism

metabolism refers to the sum of all the chemical reactions in the body.

Metabolism

metabolism: includes reactions where molecules are broken down, includes reactions where new molecules are synthesized, and sum of all the chemical reactions in the body.

Factors that affect enzyme conformation

pH and temperature

Neutron

particle found in the nucleus that has a neutral charge.

Peptide bond

peptide bond is the bonds between amino acids in a protein.

Polymers

polymers formed of many sugars are classified as complex carbohydrates or polysaccharides.

proteins

polypeptides over 100 amino acids

Solution

solution consists of a solute dissolved in a solvent.

Essential fatty acid

some fatty acids must be obtained from the diet because the body cannot synthesize them. the term given to this group of compound is Essential fatty acid.

Suspension

suspension, with blood cells in the plasma, is a biological example of a suspension

Secondary level

the secondary level of protein structure is determined by the folding of the protein due to hydrogen bonding between amino acids to form alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets.

Alpha helix

the secondary structure of proteins that has a spiral shape.

Biochemistry

the study of the molecules and chemical reactions that occur in living cells is known as Biochemistry

Active site

the substrate-binding site of an enzyme is known as the active site.

Emulsion

the suspension of fats in water is an example of an emulsion

Exchange reaction

trades atoms between molecules.

Reversible chemical reaction

two reactants, a and b, combine to form product c. under the correct conditions, c can degrade back to a and b.

protons and neutrons

two subatomic particles that contribute to the mass of an atom is Proton and Neutrons. (electrons have little mass)


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