Chapter 21 Inquizitive Parrott

All of the revolutions in this chapter shared similar roots related to Atlantic commerce and at least a measure of decentralization in their aftermath, but they had different outcomes. Match the three Atlantic revolutions that occurred in the New World with their outcomes.

After a period of uncertainty, revolution here led to considerable stability, but the issue of slavery eventually led to a major civil war several decades later. --> United States of America A series of revolutions failed to coalesce, leading to unstable republics alternating with periods of military dictatorships. --> Spanish America The revolution ousted imperial control and led to the abolition of slavery, but it collapsed into a dictatorship followed by a very unstable republic. --> Haiti

Fill in the blanks to complete the following passage about the multiple facets of the American Revolution. The American War for Independence was about two kinds of conflicts at the same time. On the one hand, it was a _____ because American forces fought for fundamental political changes, declaring their_____ from British rule. On the other hand, it was also a _____ because it involved violent struggles between American rebels who supported the revolution and _______ who wanted to remain with the British Empire.

Revolution Independence Civil War Loyalists

This map shows the military activities of France from 1789 until 1814. Select the area(s) of the map where, as novelist Victor Hugo put it, Napoleon Bonaparte was "conquered by his conquests."

Russian Empire Spain

Select the passages that capture the notion held by some Jacobin revolutionaries that violence and terror were the natural and necessary ways for a revolution to achieve its goals of justice and democracy.

1) "[A] nation creates itself only upon heaps of corpses." 2) "[T]he spring of government during a revolution is virtue combined with terror: virtue, without which terror is destructive; terror, without which virtue is impotent. Terror is only justice prompt, severe and inflexible; it is ... a natural consequence of the general principle of democracy, applied to the most pressing wants of the country."

Following the execution of King Charles I, the British Revolution evolved over the next several decades. Place the following events in order, showing how the revolution changed from 1649 until 1689.

1) As Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell led a brutally repressive campaign against Ireland and Scotland to unify all of Britain under near absolute rule. 2) King Charles II's reign restored the principle of monarchy in Britain but as a weaker institution that shared more of its power with a more assertive Parliament. 3) Fearful of what James II, a Catholic who preferred a more centralized monarchy, might do, Parliament invited a Dutch aristocrat and his wife to invade Britain and ascend the throne. 4) William and Mary's ascension to the throne was called the Glorious Revolution, which affirmed the strength of Parliament and the limitations on the power of monarchy.

What were the key similarities between the revolutions in Kongo and Britain in the seventeenth century?

1) Both included a rising class of people who had become enriched by Atlantic trade and their allies and who upset structures of power, weakened royal authority, and caused waves of violent struggle. 2) Religious zealots in both revolutions attempted to unite their respective countries.

Which of the following factors contributed to an American victory in the American Revolution?

1) France, Spain, and the Netherlands joined in against Britain. 2) Leaders avoided toe-to-toe confrontations and kept the mostly volunteer army together. 3) America had the advantage of fighting an enemy whose base of supply was an ocean away.

What were the characteristics of the radical phase of the French Revolution after the fall of the monarchy in France?

1) Jacobins took control of the revolution, ended elections, and instituted a host of new reforms dealing with everything from fashion and religion to measurements and slavery. 2) Jacobin leaders of the Committee of Public Safety were executed by their political enemies. 3) While controlled by the Committee of Public Safety, the revolution devolved into a reign of terror, which at its height involved as many as two dozen public executions daily.

What tensions and issues contributed to the wave of revolutions in Spanish America?

1) Just as Atlantic commerce was becoming more lucrative, Spain's trade policy kept merchants in Spanish America from trading with anyone other than Spain, a policy to which they raised objections. 2) Geopolitical shifts in the Atlantic world weakened Spain's imperial hold on its American colonies, opening the door for countless and increasingly powerful factions to push back against changes they disliked. 3) Concerned over the vulnerability of its American empire, Spain attempted to streamline imperial administration through a series of reforms.

What factors made new oceanic connections more politically disruptive for the Atlantic world compared to places outside of it?

1) Many of the ruling elites in the Atlantic world were less adept at adjusting to the rapidly globalizing world in a way that allowed them to remain in power. 2) Unlike in Qing China or Mughal India, oceanic trade made up a larger proportion of the economy in the Atlantic world, so merchants grew influential enough to upset the basic arrangements of political life that kept landowners, bureaucrats, military castes, and imperial courts on top. 3) While merchants in the Indian Ocean world and the South China Sea could reach their political goals within the existing system, merchants in the Atlantic world found that more challenging. This offered greater incentive for Atlantic world merchants to overthrow the system than it did for merchants elsewhere.

Place the following events of Napoleon Bonaparte's rise and fall in order.

1) Napoleon led his army in victories against Austria and Italy, winning him prestige among revolutionary leaders. 2) Along with other anti-royalist revolutionaries, Napoleon seized political power and later crowned himself emperor of France. 3) Napoleon led a series of successful expansionist campaigns in Austria, Germany, Spain, and Portugal, establishing new governments friendly to Napoleon's policies. 4) After his Spanish campaign slowed down and his invasion of Russia failed, Napoleon lost political support and had to abdicate his imperial throne.

Place the following phases in order to show how the Atlantic world became more densely connected after 1600.

1) New Atlantic trade currents allowed men and women of modest origins to grow wealthier by trading slaves, sugar, cotton, indigo, and other items. 2) Newly wealthy men and women in the Atlantic world wanted greater freedom to gain more wealth faster. 3) People who desired a greater degree of freedom sought a more significant political voice to secure their access to liberty. 4) Atlantic trade circuits provided the environment to share new political ideas, which allowed those seeking more liberty a way to articulate their beliefs about freedom, power, and sovereignty.

What were the major factors that led to the English Civil Wars from 1641 to 1649?

1) Reassessing the role and power of monarchy in Britain 2) A period of remarkably bad circumstances for Britons, including famine, failed harvests, and rising costs of living 3) Financial stress for the monarchy and its abuse of power to get money

Beginning in the 1790s, a series of events pushed Spain's American colonies toward revolutionary wars for independence. Place the following events in order.

1) The French Revolution cut into Atlantic commerce, hurting the profits of Spanish American merchants and the Spanish Crown. 2) Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of the Iberian Peninsula forced King Fernando VII to flee Spain. 3) Factions throughout Spanish America grew influential and bolder in their calls for political change. 4) King Fernando returned to power and tried to restore his hold over Spanish America, causing the outbreak of civil wars between revolutionaries and royalists.

The French Revolution began in 1789 after members of the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly and the embodiment of the will of the people. Place the events that followed in chronological order.

1) The National Assembly declared all French citizens legally equal. 2) The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen affirmed that sovereignty belonged to adult male citizens. 3) The National Assembly confiscated most of the property that belonged to the Catholic Church and sold it. 4) After attempting to flee, French revolutionaries caught, tried, and executed King Louis XVI.

In the late eighteenth century, French society was divided into three tiers, or "estates." The First Estate included the clergy; the Second Estate was made up of the nobility; and the Third Estate included most everyone else. In this system, known as the Old Regime, all of these estates were subject to the authority of the French king. What socioeconomic changes in the late eighteenth century challenged the Old Regime and pushed France toward revolution?

1) The Second Estate began to criticize the monarchy for its inefficiency and the First Estate for suffocating society and culture. 2) French urbanization in the age of increasing Atlantic trade led to the rise of a stronger and more vocal merchant and professional class willing to challenge the rigidity of the Old Regime. 3) The French aristocracy turned on one another claiming that others were standing in the way of economic progress by resisting innovation.

Atlantic roots were not the only factor all these revolutions shared. They also had shared links through mobile ideas, revolutionary participants, and interlocking events. Which of the following are examples of these other connections?

1) The idea of limited government that was so central to the British Revolution showed up in the American Revolution's slogan of "No taxation without representation." 2) Venezuelan Francisco Miranda, who was known for being an early supporter of independence from Spain, fought with Spanish forces against the British in the American Revolution, and he fought in the French Revolution. 3) Napoleon Bonaparte's leadership in France and his expansionary wars in Europe created the condition for rebellions in Spain's American colonies.

Which of the following examples reflect the distinctively Atlantic character of the Haitian Revolution?

1) The primary leader of the revolution, Toussaint L'Ouverture, was born into slavery but gained his freedom; he spoke French, Ewe, and creole; he was a practicing Catholic and an expert leader. 2) The French Revolution sparked the Haitian Revolution; and following the victory in Haiti, some veteran revolutionaries advised and supplied the rebellion in Venezuela. 3) Hundreds of gens de couleur fought in the American Revolution against Britain, and some Haitian soldiers came from the civil wars in Kongo.

The revolutions in North America, France, Haiti, and Spanish America shared a similar element tied to Atlantic commerce. In all of these revolutionary movements, a merchant class grew resentful of the monarchy's limitations on their ability to gain more wealth and influence and of their exclusion from political power. In this primary source below, Simón Bolívar, a creole from Venezuela, writes a letter that outlines his reasons for revolting against Spain. Select the passages below that reflect that shared resentment of royal limitations on commercial activities in the Atlantic world.

1) Yet even this status is surrounded with galling restrictions, such as being forbidden to grow European crops, or to store products which are royal monopolies, or to establish factories of a type the Peninsula [Spain] itself does not possess. 2) To this add the exclusive trading privileges [of merchants favored by Spain] ... and the barriers between American provinces....

Use your knowledge of the major events of the American Revolution from the textbook chapter and your analysis of this map to drag each label to the place it matches on the map. 1. This was a hotbed of colonial anti-tax protests and the location of the first shots of the Revolution. 2. Colonial representatives met here in the summer of 1776 as the Second Continental Congress, where they issued their Declaration of Independence. 3. With the help of French soldiers and the French navy, Continental forces pinned down British forces here and forced them to surrender. 4. Following British surrender, loyalist supporters of the Crown fled the former thirteen colonies for these areas still under British control.

1. Boston 2. Philadelphia 3. Yorktown, VA 4. British North America (Canada)

Analyze the map below of Spanish America circa 1800 to 1830. Then match the following descriptions to the correct places on the map. 1. Site of the first successful independence movement among the Spanish American colonies. 2. Region that includes the only remaining Spanish colonies after the wave of Spanish American revolutions. 3. Site of a major Amerindian and mestizo rebellion led by a descendant of the Inka Empire's ruling family. 4. The place where Simón Bolívar first forged a revolutionary coalition.

1. Paraguay 2. Cuba 3. Peru 4. Venezuela

The decades after the death of King Garcia II were marked by chaos and political fragmentation. What were the major features of that period of fragmentation?

1. The volume of slave exports from Kongo increased dramatically, as Kongo warlords captured and sold their fellow Bakongo to gain political power. 2. The period of civil war in Kongo destroyed the old kingdom and eventually paved the way for a weaker state with a much more constrained monarchy and a more powerful elite. 3. Moved by her Catholic faith and the terrible circumstances facing Kongo, Beatriz Kimpa Vita led a movement that was equal parts religious and political to reunite Kongo.

All of the revolutions in this chapter shared similar roots related to Atlantic commerce and at least a measure of decentralization in their aftermath, but they had different outcomes. Match the three Atlantic revolutions that occurred in the Old World to their outcomes.

As a result of its revolution, it became more unstable and violent, its population became more enmeshed in the slave trade as slaves and traders, and the monarchy weakened. --> Kongo The revolution collapsed into the Terror and then took on international dimensions through a military dictatorship, which was followed by the restoration of royal power after its dictator was exiled in 1815. --> France While the revolution initially led to a brutally repressive and violent stage, after 1639 it eventually restored a slightly weaker monarchy, a more assertive propertied class, and stability. --> Britain

Broad economic and social changes tied to Atlantic connections as well as European imperial competition over North American territory set the stage for rising tensions between Britain and its North American colonies. Match each factor to its appropriate category.

Broad economic and social changes in colonial North America tied to Atlantic connections: 1) Trade links created prosperous elites with ambition. 2) Political ideas circulated from Britain to the colonies. Imperial competition over claims to North American territory: 1) Britain ended up gaining French-claimed territory in North America, which actually belonged to the many American Indian tribes already living there, setting the stage for further tension and financial strain. 2) Britain ordered its colonies to contest the expansion of French forts into lands west of the Appalachian Mountains. George Washington and his forces attacked, causing an expensive war between Britain and France.

Although the new constitution of the United States ignored the contribution women made in the war for American independence, the ideals of the revolution reached far beyond the founders who sought to throw off British rule. In the spring of 1776, Abigail Adams and her husband, John Adams, exchanged letters about the unfolding revolution and the kind of nation independence might bring. The two excerpts below include passages from two different letters written by Abigail Adams that urge those in a position to make sure that women gain some protections under what she calls "the new Code of Laws." From these excerpts, select the passage that indicates women could make claims on citizenship and equal rights according to the same revolutionary ideals that animated leaders like John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, or George Washington.

But you must remember that Arbitrary power is like most other things which are very hard, very liable to be broken

How did Spain's experiment with making trade freer after 1765 help pave the way for revolutions?

By reducing trade restrictions and increasing the quantity of trade partners, the Crown's experiment allowed creole merchants to prosper and grow more resentful of their lack of political voice and bolder in their calls for independence.

Tensions between Britain and its American colonies that led to the American Revolution revolved around two main issues: access to Amerindian lands west of the Appalachian Mountains and British tax policies. Match the following episodes related to these two main issues to their corresponding effects.

Colonists protested British taxes using the slogan "no taxation without representation." They also boycotted taxed goods and organized attacks on symbols of British authority. --> British subjects in North America believed taxes imposed on them had been done so without their consent. Tensions flared into an all-out uprising in Pontiac's War in 1763, in which united indigenous forces captured several frontier posts until the king issued the Proclamation of 1763, which prohibited further settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. --> Colonists wanted to expand into Amerindian lands, but Britain sought to avoid causing more damage to an already contentious relationship with the Amerindian chiefs along British North America's western frontier. Since the need for protection had diminished after 1763, American colonists saw no need to pay taxes that would fund British troops in North America. --> The British imposed a series of new taxes on British colonists in North America to raise revenue needed to pay the debts they had taken on to protect their American colonies.

Fill in the blanks to complete the following passage about the intellectual origins of the French Revolution. One of the many tangled roots of the French Revolution was tied to the intellectual movement known as the _______ which involved mostly ______ who championed reason, science, political liberty, and religious toleration. Their main targets for reform were the monarchy and the church. To these individuals, both institutions were out of date and impediments to _______.

Enlightenment Intellectuals Progress

Within a few short years after Napoleon's abdication, monarchs across Europe and even in France returned to power. By 1815 the French Revolution had been completely undone.

False

How were the principles of the American Revolution represented in the Constitution formally adopted by the United States of America in 1789?

In a broad sense, the U.S. Constitution institutionalized the principle that a government's power rests on the consent of the governed.

This image captures an iconic moment from the summer of 1789, early in the French Revolution. What set of circumstances led the women in this engraving to take up arms?

In the mid-1780s, an Icelandic volcano erupted, causing a climatic disaster for Europe. In France, its effects lasted a few years and included bad harvests, rising grain prices, and drought. The scarcity and exorbitant cost of food led people of many social classes to riot over food.

Analyze the four images below: the first image is a map of the Kingdom of Kongo around 1640; the second image shows the Portuguese colony of Luanda in northern Angola; the third image depicts a diplomat named Miguel de Castro wearing Dutch clothing; and the fourth image shows a brass pendant of St. Anthony of Padua cast by a Kongo artist during Beatriz Kimpa Vita's attempt to re-unify the kingdom of Kongo. Select the image(s) that reflect(s) the cultural connectivity between Kongo and the Atlantic world.

Man in uniform and figurine of priest/monk with cross

What statement best captures the significance of the British Revolution (1640-1707)?

Taken as a whole, the most significant aspect of the British Revolution is that it established the principle that Parliament ruled over England and Scotland.

King Garcia II of Kongo was able to remain in power longer than was typical for Kongo monarchs (from 1641 until 1660) because he provided stability that increased the prosperity of the Kongo elite and was committed to preventing the enslavement of his people and to redeeming those who had been captured. These factors earned him the allegiance of his subjects, common and elite alike.

True

The Haitian Revolution began as a slave uprising in 1791, but it turned into a revolution that faced off and won against two European empires and led to the formation of the second independent country in the Americas in 1804.

True

The framers of the Constitution permitted slavery to continue where it already existed, and they allowed it to grow by allowing the Atlantic slave trade to continue for a further two decades.

True

The revolutions in Kongo, Britain, France, North America, South America, and Haiti shared important Atlantic roots, such as the destabilizing effects of expanding Atlantic commerce.

True

Fill in the blanks to complete the following passage about the political and social climate in St. Domingue around 1789. In many ways, St. Domingue was primed for revolution because its society was at a boiling point over an array of unfulfilled aspirations. _____ wanted political representation on par with others in Paris. They also wanted the freedom to ______ without restrictions. The ______ wanted the same political and social equality that whites experienced. And _______ wanted to be free. By 1790, the year after news of the French Revolution reached the island, the uprisings had started.

Whites Trade Gens de couleur Slaves

One of the factors that led to a revolution in Kongo was a breakdown in the hierarchy of power in what was a remarkably centralized state. Match each component of Kongo social hierarchy to its correct description.

farmed cassava and maize and expected royal protection from enslavement --> common people acted as leaders of their extended kin groups and loosely controlled labor of people on their land and provided loyal support to those in power --> lineage heads used access to Portuguese trade goods, especially firearms, to maintain an army, gain prestige, and buy and raid for slaves --> Kongo monarchy

Spanish American society was very diverse but organized according to a semi-fluid and legally binding system of ethno-racial groupings. Drag each label to the description it matches.

people of Spanish and Amerindian ancestry; experienced fewer advantages than those of only European descent but also faced fewer social and legal disadvantages than people of African descent: mestizos people of Spanish descent; dominated Spanish American society politically and economically: peninsulares and criollos people of mixed European or Amerindian and African parentage; faced legal handicaps because of African descent: mulattos and zambos