chapter 23: changes in Europe

divine right of kings; kings derived authority from god and served ad god's lieutenants; commoners or nobles; France; Cardinal Richelieu; Louis XIII; destroying their castles; building large bureaucracy with commoners loyal to king; attacking Calvanists who worked with nobles; Louis XIV; palace of Versailles; keep an eye on them; nobility with entertainment in return for absolute rule; establishment of new industries; exports

Absolute monarchy increased state power, and stood on foundation down as ___. This thrust held that ______. There was not role for _____. Noncompliance of policies resulted in punishment and rebellion was despicable act, even though kings relied on nobles' compliance. The most clear absolutist state was ____. The architect of that was _____, who served as chief minister of _____ 1624-1642. He worked to undermine power of nobility by _____, crushing conspiracies, _____, appointing officials to supervise implementation of royal policy, and _____. By mid-17th century, France was absolute monarchy. The ruler who embodied absolutism was ___ who declared himself the state and known as the sun king, he surround himself with splendor and during 1670s he built _____ near Paris. The king was center of attention, and court officials hovered around him and attended his every need. All nobles established residences in Versailles and Louis encouraged them to live in court, where he could _____, and nobles went there to win influence with king. Louis also patronized the arts, and while Nobels enjoyed themselves, Louis and his ministers ran state, providing ______. He controlled standing army, supported _____, abolished internal tariffs, and encouraged ____, and waged war to make France a power in Europe.

power of god; already decided who would; the elect; dress simply; missionary centers; France; King Henry VIII; divorce his wife; head of Anglican Church;

Although Calvin believed in basic elements of Luther's teachings, his ideas differed from his. Calvin emphasized ______ more, and believed that humans could never earn salvation, but God ______. They were called '____' and they were predestined for salvation. Geneva was bound by strict code, and Calvanists were expected to _____, study bible, and refrain from certain activities. Geneva also became important _____ from which Calvanist doctrine spread, especially to _____, but also to Germany, Low Countries, England, Scotland, and Hungary. In England, a reformation occurred as Lutherans and other Protestants worked to build following there since 1520s but faced resistance until ______. He wanted to ______ but pope did not let him, so Henry severed relations with Roman church and made himself _____, and English pope. While he reigned, English church changed little, but his ancestors made England become big place for Anglicand, Lutherans, and Calvanists.

decreasing mortality; 81M; 100M; 120M; 180M; urbanization; rulers choosing it as site of government; Madrid; Paris; London;

Although European birthrates did not rise dramatically, but ____ resulted in population growth. In 1500 it was ___, in 17th century (1600s) it was ___, and wars led to decline between 1620-1650, but by 1700 population grew to ____ and additional 50% to ____ in 1800. Thus led to ____, as some cities grew due to ______, such as ___ (went from few thousand to 170,000). Other cities were commercial and industrial centers such as ___ (went from 130,00 to 500,000) and ____ (from 60,000 to 500,000). Amsterdam, Berlin, Copenhagen, Dublin Vienna, Stockholm, and others grew as well.

astronomers to examine heavens in new ways; based theories on data, and relied on math reasoning; scientific revolution; Johannes Kepler of Germany and Galileo Galilei of Italy; planetary orbits were elliptical, not circular; heavens was not perfect, but a world of change; velocity relied on height rather than weight; modern law of inertia; English Isaac Newton; Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy; ebb and flow of tides; orbits of planets reflecting gravity of sun

Although unpopular, Copernicus' theory inspired _____, and as evidence accumulated it became clear that Ptolemy's universe was not reality. Astronomers ______, gradually abandoning Ptolemy's theory in favor of Copernicus' model. Many more scientists began to analyze and by 17th century, observation and math reasoning dominated and this brought about the _____. The works of ________ killed Ptolemy's universe. Kepler showed _______. Galileo showed ______. He took telescope and reported septs of sun, and mountains on moss lots with for moons around planet Jupiter and stars. In addition, he contributed to understand of terrestrial motion by showing ______ and explained better the influence of gravity. He also anticipated ______. The new approach culminated in _____, who depended on accurate observation and reasoning. He outlined his views on ______ in 1687, which united heavens under one cosmic system. He argues that law of universal gravitation regulated motion of bodies and offered precise explanations of laws. His laws of gravity and motion synthesize astronomy and mechanics, and allowed his to explain ______, and ______.

moved production to countryside; putting-out system; raw materials to rural households; pick up the finished goods and sell them; spent little money and realized profits; proindustrialization; brought material benefits and undermined rural life; eastern Europe; trade and communication; restricted freedom to Russian peasants and tied them to land as serfs; leaving without landlords permission; control Russian labor force by establishing rigid social order restricting mobility; treated them as property

Capitalists seeking profits found guilds cumbersome, so they sidestepped them and ______. Instead of relying on urban artisans, they organized ______. They would give _____, men and women would produce the finished goods and entrepreneurs would _______. Because real labor was plentiful, entrepreneurs ______. This system realized an early industrialization. Some people call 17/18th centuries as ______. Capitalist economy brought change, as they introduced money into countryside and increased wealth ______. The material standards of rural life rose and peasant households acquired more luxuries. Individuals acquired incomes that enabled them to purse their economies interests and become financially dependent on neighbors. The system did not become prominent in _____ as it had few cities and most people had no alternative to working in countryside, in which landlords took advantage. Russia was vast empire with little _____. Out of corn of allegiance of nobles, Romanov tzars _______, requiring them to work for landowners and prevented them from _______. After 15th century, serfdom came to end in Western Europe but in Russia, it survived until 19th century. Romanovs won support of nobles by doing so, and in 1649 government made law that allowed state to ______. The law did to turn serfs into slaves, but landlords commonly _____. Under those conditions, landlords operated estates with cheap labor and derived huge incomes.

written constitution of power of state; claimed limited power and recognized rights of people; constitutional monarchy; republic based on representative government; English civil war; institute new taxes without parliament approval; Calvanists known as Puritans; Charles I; Oliver Cromwell; dictatorship; return to monarchy in 1660; Glorious revolution; James II; Mary and Dutch husband, William of Orange

England and Dutch republic did not have ____, but during 17th century, they evolved governments that _______. Their constitutional states took different forms, in England ____ appeared and Netherlands were _____. Neither land had it easy, in England there as civil war and Netherlands had long struggle for independence. But it strengthened the state and provided political framework for European flourish. Constitutional government came to to England after the _____. From early 17th century English kings tried to _____. While royal polices generated tensions, religious conflict took place. As Anglicans, the kings supported church with ornate ceremonies and hierarchy of bishops working under monarchy. However, many of voices in parliament belonged to ____, because of their desire to purify English church of lingering elements of Roman Catholic. By 1641, ____ and parliament were unable to cooperate, so both sides raised armies. In conflicts, parliament forces under ____ captured Charles and tried him for tyranny and beheaded him in 1649. In absence of king, Cromwells Puritan regime took power but became disagreeable ____, prompting parliament to ______, which became the _____ which parliament deposed King _____ and invited ______ to assume throne. They worked nicely with parliament, and guarantee that the people would participate in government affairs.

powerful states than medieval times; interstate competition and war; thirty years war; peace of westphalia in 1648; regarded one another as sovereign and equal; political and diplomatic affairs were entrusted to each state; wars of Louis XIV to absorb Spain and Spanish Netherlands; balance of power; form coalitions against one state that began to wax strong; Europe would be land of independent states

European governments of early modern times built more _______. The state development led to difficulties within Europe, as conflicting interests ruled ______. In absence of imperial authority, sovereign states had to find was to resolve conflicts. The ____ caused devastation an echoes, and in effort to stop that European states ended the war with the ______ which laid foundation for competing states. Almost all europeans participated in the treaty, and on its terms, each state _____. They mutually recognize their rights to organized their own affairs, and rather than imperial authority, _____. European religious unity had disappeared. The peace did not bring end to war, but most conflicts were minor affairs. A few wars grew sizable though, such as _____ and seven years war. These shifting alliances illustrate principal foundation of European diplomacy in early modern times, ____. This allowed states to ______, though it might open doors for another country to wax strong. In general, it prevented imperial states and ensured _______.

hunt for witches; certain individuals had unusual powers; witches made agreements with devil in exchange for powers; witches sabbath; explanation for unpleasant turn of events; women; 85; easy targets and had few protectors; Switzerland in 1782; France; King Phillip II; Spanish Armada; Queen Elizabeth;

Europeans also had violence in their _____, prominently where tensions between churches were high. Europeans long believed _____, and by late-15th century theologians theorized that _______, inducing ability to fly, and that they went to secret places to attend '_____'. Although the sabbath was fantasy, fear of alliances with devil sparked intensive hunt. Witchcraft became ______, and about 110,000 people went trial as suspected witches, and about 45,000 were killed by hanging or burning. As a rule, church courts tried large numbers of witches but only secular courts would kill. Gender played important role, as most convicted were ____, ___% or more. Many were poor, old, single, or widowed, for they were ______. By 1700 fear had diminished, and accusations were sporadic. The last execution was in _____. Religious mentions also led to war between Protestants and Roman Catholics. Religious wars racked ____ for almost 36 year and in 1588 _____ of Spain attempted to force England back into Roman Catholic by sending _____, flotilla of 130 ships and 30,000 meant to dethrone protestant _____. The effort failed, as English forces sent blazing, unmanned ships into armada.

Martin Luther; indulgences; ninety-five theses; Pope Leo X; Charles V; Wittenberg; Protestants;

In 1517, _____, German monk, denounced Roman Catholic Church sale of ____ (pardon excusing individuals from sins and facilitating their entrance into heaven) in his _____. Churches like them because they gained them profits and encouraged individuals to reflect on there behavior. To Luther, they were signs of greed, and he despised the greed of Roman church authorities. His book spread and his opinion spread among people who disliked the church. ______ excommunicated the monk in 1520 and in 1521, _____ of Holy Roman Empire demanded he recant his views. Luther still considered himself Christians, and _____ became center of religious dissent that spread and in 1530s became known as _______. Luther's act grew into protestant reformation that broke unity in western christendom. Building of powerful states, capitalism, and early modern science also influenced European society.

monasteries; vernacular languages; priestly authority; faith in God; Justification by faith; Germany; Holy Roman Empire; build power bases; Switzerland and Low Countries; John Calvin; Geneva; Institutes of Christian religion

In Luther's writings and speeches, he attacked Roman church for many abuses. He wanted the close of _____, translation of Bible into _____, end to ____, and he thought salvation could not be earned through good works or prayers, but through _____. _______ became core of Protestant beliefs. His works drew popular response, and in ____ churches reformed to his movement. Lay Christians went to head his preaches and many princes of _____ warmed up to him, partly because religious controversy allowed them to ______. Many German cities made laws against Roman Catholicism and by mid 16th century half of Germans adopted Lutheran Christianity. ______ also responded enthusiastically, but Italy and Spain suppressed. In France and French-speaking Switzerland, _____ converted to Protestant Christianity. Because French monarchy sought to suppress Protestants, he slipped into ____ and organized Protestant community and worked to impose discipline into city, and composed _______, codifying Protestant teachings.

imperial states; England, France, and Spain; new monarchs; Henry VIII of England, Louis XI and Francis I of French, and Fernando and Isabel of Spain; new sources of finance; salt; sales; raised fines and fees for royal services; enlarged staffs; French and Spanish; too expensive and large for nobles to match; used church wealth to expand powers; excuse to mobilize resources

In absence of imperial power, guidance was in _____. Italian city-states had been important for a while, but real power was in _____. During 15/16th centuries, rulers of those lands known as _____ marshaled resources, curbed nobility, and built strong centralized regimes. The new monarchs included ______. They sought to enhance their treasuries by developing ________. French taxed sales, households, and ____. Spanish taxed ___. English did not tax in fear of rebellion, but ______. Henry VIII severed ties with Roman church, and therefore confiscated church wealth and increased size of state by using the new finance. With increased income, new monarchs _____, enabling them to collect taxes and implement policies easier. The ______ maintained standing army that increased their power. The armies were _____. The English did not need standing army, but they subjected nobles to royal justice and forced them to comply with royal policy. The debates and disputes in Protestant reformation helped monarchs increase power. In Protestant lands, rulers took possessions of monasteries and ______, and Protestant movements gave them ______.

Phillip II of Spain; suppress Calvanist movement in Netherland; anti-Spanish alliance and proclaimed themselves the United Provinces; republic; 1648; little experience with representative government; appealing to political and religious interests of broad constituencies; merchants; economic interests with minimal interference of government

In mid-16th century, authority in Low Countries rested with _____. In 1567, Phillip, Roman Catholic, moved to _____, provoking rebellion against Spanish rule. In 1579, group of Dutch provinces made ______. Representative assemblies organized affairs in provinces, and on this Dutch leaders made a ____. Spanish did not recognize independence of Dutch states until ___. In many ways, constitutional monarchy of England and republic of Dutch represented historical experiments. Europeans had _____, and in their responses to political crises, popular leaders in England and Netherlands found it possible to mobilize support by ______ and making place for them in government. The result was pair of states that harnessed popular support and used it to magnify state power. In both countries, ____ were prominent in political affairs and state policy in the lands favored maritime trade and commercial sea empires. The constitutional states allowed entrepreneurs to pursue _______, and this made them extremely wealth. The merchants worked to get wealth that supported state and and government looked over interest of merchants.

define points of doctrine; clarify differences between Protestant and Catholic churches; Council of Trent and Society of Jesus; St.Thomas Aquinas; church authorities to observe strict standards; st. Ignatius Loyola; Jesuits; effective missionaries; councilors to rulers

In response to Protestant reformation, the Roman Catholic Church also underwent reform to present reactions and to _____ in order to _____, bring people back, and depend religious commitment. This constituted the Catholic Reformation. Two institutions were important, the ________. The Council was an assembly of church officials who met 1545-1563 to address matters of doctrine, and drawing from _______, they defined elements in detail. They acknowledged they alienated maul peoples, and took steps to reform, by demanding ______ and establish schools and seminaries to prepare priests. The Society of Jesus also went on offensive, and its founder was ______, Basque nobleman who had leg wound and while recuperating read spiritual works. Ignatius required members, ____, to complete advanced education in classical languages, literature, history, and science. As a result, they were _____ and able to outargue opponents and acquire reputation for discipline. They also served as _____, and used influence to promote policies benefiting Roman church, and spread Christianity to India, China, Japan, Philippines, and Americas.

symbolized scientific revolution; turn away from classical authorities and construct fresh approachers to natural world; challenged some traditions concerting nature of universe and replaced them with new principles; guided by prejudice to imagination; William Harvey; male semen, with generative powers so potent did not even reach uterus, that gave life; Emilie du Chatelet; Gottfried Leibniz; translation of Newton's Principia Mathematica

Newton's work ______, but did mark the end of use of math reasoning. Inspired by discoveries of astronomers and scientists, other began to _______. During 17/18th centuries, anatomy, physiology, microbiology, and chemistry underwent change as scientists tested theories on observation and explained them in math terms. In 16/17th centuries, Europe's men ______. Yet, when male scientists studied female anatomy they were ______. _____, English physician who discovered principles of circulation human blood, hypothesized that women served as mere receptacles for male fluid. It was the ______. With that came the inferiority of women, adding scientific veneer to traditional images, roles, and functions of women. Despite critical attitudes, some women were drawn to the times. _____ was scientist of three volume work on German mathematician ____ in 1740. Her greatest achievement was _______, and she also explained his complex math in graceful prose. She finished her work in year of her death, after giving birth.

Netherlands and Spain; Philip II; 7 northern provinces won independence and became United provinces; thirty years war; Holy Roman Empire attempted to force Bohemian subjects to return to Roman Catholic Church; most destructive war in Europe before 20th century; 1/3; Habsburg family; Charles V ; Duchy of Burgundy and Spain; Vienna to Cuzco; administrative structure; ambition to extend authority

Religious conviction also aggravated relations in _____, fueling revolt of Dutch provinces from overlord king of Spain. In 1567, ____ sent army to tighten control of provinces and suppress Calvanist movement there, which led to rebellion. By 1610, ______ leaving southern provinces in Spanish and later Austrian control. This conflict led to ______, which opened after _______, and main battleground was Germany. Other parties soon entered fray and by end of war, Spain, France, Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Bohemia, Russia all took part. Motives to enter were political or economical. Regardless of motives, the war was ______. The war damaged economies and societies, and led to ____ loss of German population. After Carolingian dynasty fell, there was no centralized power in Western Europe. After 1438, ____ dominated Holy Roman empire, and through marriage alliances with princes, they accumulated rights and titles to lands. _____ inherited authority over Habsburg and Austrian domains as well as _____. When he became emperor in 1519, he acquired territory from _____. In spite of his holdings, he did not extend authority through Europe as he devoted much attention to Lutheran movement and imperial princes who attempted to assert independence. Charles also did not built _____, ruling lands according to its own laws and customs. He was able to draw financial resources of wealthy lands, but did not have ____.

protestant reformation; caught in political affairs; materialism; personal involvement with divine; more direct connection with god; printing press; Johannes Gutenberg; Mainz; printed work in religion

The _____ begins in early 16th century, but many conditions prompted reformers to challenge Roman church authority. The church had become ______, and the fights combined with church's wealth and power fostered greed which made it vulnerable to criticism. The ____ of the church further betrayed christian values. The church faced disapproval way before 1517. With criticism came demand for ______, and church authorities attempted to do this, but people wanted ______. Martin Luther attacked the indulgences, and attracted support from others who resented church, and because of the _____, his works were able to spread rapidly. _____ introduced printing to Europe around 1439 and stared printing revolution. From his homework of ___ printing spread and his translation of Bible into German stimulated the distribution of books and a growing literacy in the public demanded _____ as both supporters and critics of Luther took their work to printers, and religious controversies kept printing busy.

Spanish Inquisition; advance state ends; Fernando and Isabel; ferret those who secretly prattle Judaism or Islam; detect Protestant heresy in Spain; broad powers to investigate heresy; observed rules of evidence and releases many suspects; Roman Catholic; constitutional states; absolute monarchy

The _____ was institution that relied on religious justice to ____. ____ founded inquisition in 1478, and obtained papal license to operate as royal agency. The task was to _____, but Charles V charged it with responsibility to _____. In 15/16th centuries Inquisition served political service and reached past Iberia peninsula, just as witch hunting crossed Atlantic Ocean and inspired American colonies. Inquisitors had _____, and legends created impression of Spanish Inquisition as amok, cramming innocent victims when Inquisitors ______, yet when detecting heresy they sentenced victims to hand to birth and imprisoned some. Fear of inquisition intimate many into silence and strict _____ prevailed in Spain. Inquisition also deterred nobles from adopting Protestant views and, used its influence on behalf of Spanish monarchy. During 17/18th centuries, after 30 years war, European stetted developed among 2 lines. Netherlands and England created ______ and France, Spain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia created ______.

Catherine the Great/Catherine II; diving Russia into 50 provinces; working to improve conditions of peasantry; Yemelian Pugachev; beheaded him, and displayed his parts as warning against rebellion; tight centralization and strengthening of the state; Poland

The most able of Peter's successors was _____, who sought to make Russia great power. She did this by _____, and promoting economic development in towns, and ______. She did this by restricting punishments nobles would inflict, and eliminating common penalties. her interest in social reforged stoped when it inspired challenges to her rule. She faced trial in 1773/74 and disgruntled soldier _____ mourned rebellion. He raised army who killed noble landowners, and government officials before imperial forces could crush uprising. Government authorities took Pugachev and _____. Thereafter, Catherine's first concern was in preservation of rule, thus absolutist policies resulted in ______. The enhanced power became clear in 1772-1797 when Austria, Prussia and Catherines Russia picked _____ part and in series of partitions, seized the territory and absorbed it into their own states.

Russia; Romanov dynasty; Moscow; Arctic seas to Caspian sea; Peter I, known as Peter the Great; western Europe; Germany, Netherlands, and England; offering better pay and drafting peasants; modern weapons; math and geometry; increase tax collection and improve administrate efficiency; shave beards; st. Petersburg

The potential of absolutism for state powers was prominent in ____, where _____ tsars centralized government functions. The Romanovs inherited state that expands its boundaries, building foundation on ___ and by 1600 Russia became vast empire extending from _____. The most important of Romanov tsars was _____, who started process of state transformation. He wanted to make Russia into military power and used ____ as a model. In 1697-98 he led a group into _____ to learn about European administrative methods and military technology, and his companions were very crude. Upon returning, Peter reformed army by _____. He also provided forces with training and gave them ____. He ordered aristocrats to study ______ to calculate cannon aim, and began navy contractions. He also overhauled government bureaucracy to _____. He also commanded aristocratic subjects to wear western European fashion, and men to _____ which provoked rebellions, although Peter continued to enforce his policies. He built ____ sea port in 1703 to serve as capital.

cultivate grains and raw materials where Western Europe would employ free wage labor in building capitalist economy; profit as morally dangerous; realizing returns on investment; Adam Smith; manifested violence; danger zones; nuclear family; increase wealth; cultivating agricultural goods for sale; love between man and women became more important consideration in marriage

These arranged played roles in capitalism, as Eastern Europe relied on serfs to ______. Capitalism also posed moral challenges, as moral theologians regarded _____. Church officials tried to forbid it, but profit was lifeblood on capitalism and bakers were not willing to risk money without _____. As it transformed economy, advocated tried to explain capitalism in socially beneficial form of organization, such as _____. The transition so capitalist society was long and when individuals abandoned their ancestral practices, and declined to help, neighbors saw it as selfishness. capitalism generated strains that _____, and turned cities unto ____. In some ways, capitalism favored _____ as principal unit of society as for centuries, European couples married late and set up independent hoosegows. Early capitalism offered opportunities for independent families to ____ by ______. As nuclear families became more important, they also became more independent and ______ and affection between families grew.

Claudius Ptolemy; Almagest; series of nine hollow, spheres that revolved around it; there was heaven; wanderer; epicycles; reconcile with Ptolomaic theory by adding epicycles to cosmic maps; Nicolaus Copernicus; On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres; sun stood at centre of universe rather than the earth; earth was just another planet rather than unique creation of god

Until 17th century, European autonomies based understanding of universe on Greek scholar _____, who composed _____ synthesizing theories about universe. He envisions motionless earth surrounded by ______. Each of first seven spheres had observable heavily bodies embedded in its shell. The eight where held stars and ninth surrounded whole cosmos. Beyond spheres, ____. Following him, astronomers believed heaven consisted of glowing jewels and heavily bodies not governed by world below the moon. Although attractive, this did not mesh with erratic movement of planets (comes from Greek planetes meaning _____). Astronomers went to great lengths to explain planetary behavior as ____, small revolutions made around point in spheres. As astronomers accumulated data on planetary movement, most sought to _____. In 1543, Polish astronomer _____ wrote ______, they broke Polemaic theory. Copernicus argued ______. Compared Ptolemy's universe, this new data made more sense but did not receive warm welcome. His ideas challenged scientific theories and implied ______.

Foreign difficulties; French kings and Ottoman Empire; aided German Lutherans and encouraged them to rebel; Hungary; Vienna; Northern Africa; abdicated the throne; Ferdinand; Phillip II

_____ also prevented Charles from unifying Europe. The Holy Roman Empire struck fear on ______. French kings suspected Charles would absorb their realm and to forestall that, French created all obstacles they could. They ______, and allied with Ottoman turks. Ottoman sultans did want to see Christian empire threaten their holdings. So they conquered ___ in 1526, and siege ____. During early 16th century, they imposed their rule beyond Egypt and embraced almost all of _____. Charles' inability to suppress Lutherans was disappointing to him and after agreeing that imperial princes and cities could determine their faith., he _____. In Spain, ____, brother of Phillip, acquired the throne and in other holdings, ___ (Charles' son) was bestowed the lands.

frequent wars and balance of power diplomacy; most affective weapons; officers received advanced education on how to maintain disciplined forces; armaments industry that produced more lethal products; China, India, and Islamic lands; loss on battlefield to decline in state power; 18th century; capitalism; improved nutrition and decreasing mortality; potato; corn; tomatoes; improved European immunity to old diseases

_____ drained resources of Europe, and states competed and sought to develop ______. States organized military academies where _______. Demand for powerful weapons stimulated development of _____. Gun founders made cannons and small arms. In _____, imperial states had little/no incentive to encourage technological innovations. These states possessed forces they need to maintain order white boundaries and rarely had foreign threats. In Europe, failure to keep up with latest improvement led to ______. As a result, European armaments out-powered all others by ____. Rapidly expanding population and economy led to ____, leading to restructuring of European society. The foundation of European economy was growing population, reflecting ______. Columbian exchange enriched diets by introducing new crops, such as ____ (carbs for laborers and peasants from Ireland to Russia), ___ (for livestock), and _____ and peppers (vitamins). The crops also _____, even though smallpox carried 10% of population, but better-nourished population were more resistant. The bubonic plague stopped its ferocity and by 17th century almost gone.

joint-stock companies; spread risks and took advantage of communication and transportation systems; active support of government which saw capitalist order as best suiting to their interests; adopted policies more favorable to capitalist enterprises; enforced their contracts; settled disputes between parties; gain access to natural resources distributed through transportation networks; not seeking to realize profits; resisted technological innovation

_____ were also important institutions in early capitalist society, as EEIC and VOC ______. They were principal foundations of global economy and ancestors of multination corporations. Capitalism did not develop in political vacuum, and emerged with ______. Merchant were especially influential in Dutch and England affairs, so those lands _____. English and Dutch recognized individuals rights to presses private property and _____, protected their financial interests, and ______. They also chartered some joint-stock companies and allowed them explore, conquer and colonize. There, early capitalism developed in context of imperialism as European peoples established fortified trading posts in Asia and colonies in Southeast Asia and Americas. Imperial expansion enabled merchants to ________. Capitalism also encouraged entrepreneurs to find new ways to manufacture goods. Guilds fixed prices and wages and regulated standards for quality, therefore not preserving people's places and ______. They discouraged competition and _______.

capitalism; private parties made own good and services available on free market to seek advantage of market conditions to profit; pursue their own interests and decide what to produce; market in which businessmen compete with each other; learned words of transportation and communication; banks; demand, prices, and political news; stock exchanges

urbanization and population growth helped set off economic development, which coincided with ____, economic system in which ______. Private parties own land, machinery, tools, and raw materials needed for production, They _____. The center of capitalist system is ________, and forces of supply and demand which determine prices. If businessmen organize nicely, they will profit. Otherwise, their businesses will fail. The desire to accumulate wealth was not new, since introduction of agriculture and production of surplus generated wealth. During early modern times, European merchants and entrepreneurs transformed their society. Capitalist economy order developed as businessmen ______. Dutch merchants might purchase cheap grain from Poland and wait until they learned about a famine and sell it for high price. Private parties organize array of institutions/services to support capitalism such as ____ to help funds on account for safekeeping and grant loans, and publish business newsletters which provided info on ______. They also made insurance companies that mitigated financial loss and ____ arose and provided markets for trade and selling.