Chapter 3: Informal Fallacies
suppressed evidence
20 years ago, Kung Fong, the great sumo wrestler, could have yanked up one of the fir trees in the municipal arboretum with a single pull. Therefore, since Mr. Fong is as strong today as he was then, he could just as easily pull up one of those trees today.
equivocation
A crust of bread is better than nothing. Nothing is better than true love. Therefore, a crust of bread is better than true love.
false cause
A few minutes after Governor Harrison finished his speech on television, a devastating earthquake struck southern Alaska. For the safety of the people up there, it is imperative that Governor Harrison make no more speeches.
no fallacy
Actress Andie McDowell says that it's healthy to drink milk. But the dairy industry pays McDowell thousand of dollars to make these ads. Therefore, we should not take her testimonials too seriously.
complex question
Alex, I heard your testimony in court earlier today. Tell me, why did you lie on the witness stand?
composition
All men are mortal. Therefore, some day man will disappear from the earth.
equivocation
An athlete is a human being. Therefore, a good athlete is a good human being.
composition
An atomic bomb causes more damage than a conventional bomb. Therefore, during World War II more damage was done by atomic bombs than by conventional bombs.
red herring
Animal rights activists say that animals are abused in bio-medical research labs. But consider this: Pets are abused by their owner every day. Probably 25% of pet owners should never get near animals Some cases of abuse are enough to make you sick.
no fallacy
Butane is combustible. Therefore, it burns.
division
California condors are rapidly disappearing. This bird is a California condor. Therefore, this bird should disappear any minute now.
argument against the person, circumstantial (ad hominem)
Dan Marino, former quarterback for the Miami Dolphins, argues that Nutri-System is a great weight loss program. But that is exactly what you would expect, given that Marino owns stock in Nutri-System. Thus you should not take his arguments seriously.
tu quoque
Dr. Morrison has argued that smoking is responsible for the majority of health problems in this country and that every smoker who has the slightest concern for his or her health should quit. Unfortunately however, we must consign Dr. Morrison's argument to the trash bin. Only yesterday I saw none other than Dr. Morrison himself smoking a cigar.
suppressed evidence
During the fifty years that Mr. Jones worked, he contributed $90,000 to Social Security. Now that he is retired, he stands to collect $200,000 from the system. Obviously he will collect much more than he contributed.
false dichotomy
Either we require forced sterilization of third world peoples or world population will explode and all of us will die. We certainly do not want to die, so we must require forced sterilization.
false dichotomy
Either you marry me right now or I will be forced to leave you and never speak to you again. I am sure you would not want me to leave you and never speak to you again. Therefore, you will marry me right now.
equivocation
Emeralds are seldom found in this country, so you should be careful not to misplace your emerald ring.
argument against the person, circumstantial (Ad hominem)
Erica Evans, who takes orders at the local Taco Bell, argues persuasively in favor of increasing minimum wages. But this is exactly what you would expect, Erica is paid the minimum wage, and if the minimum wage is increased, then her own salary will go up. Obviously Erica's arguments are worthless.
composition
Every sentence in this paragraph is well written. Therefore, the paragraph is well written.
Formal Fallacy
Formal/Informal: All people who believe we create our own reality are people who lack social responsibility. All people governed by selfish motives are people who lack social responsibility. Therefore, all people who believe we create our own reality are people governed by selfish motives.
Informal Fallacy
Formal/Informal: Congresswoman Michele Bachmann argues in favor of drilling for oil in the Arctic National Refuge. But consider this, Bachmann is a total moron, a complete idiot who wouldn't recognize an oil well if she bumped into one. Clearly her arguments are ridiculous.
Informal Fallacy
Formal/Informal: Everything that runs has feet. The Columbia River runs very swiftly. Therefore, the Columbia River has feet.
Formal Fallacy
Formal/Informal: If Rasputin was really mad, then he deceived Czar Nicholas II. Rasputin was not really mad. Therefore, he did not really deceive Czar Nicholas II.
Formal Fallacy
Formal/Informal: If plastic guns are sold to the public, then terrorists will carry them aboard airliners undetected. If plastic guns are sold to the public, then airline hijackings will increase. Therefore, if terrorists carry plastic guns aboard airlines undetected, then airline hijackings will increase.
Formal Fallacy
Formal/Informal: If the Chinese government systematically kills its unwanted orphans, then the Chinese government is immoral. The Chinese government is indeed immoral. Therefore, the Chinese government systematically kils its unwanted orphans.
Informal Fallacy
Formal/Informal: Renowned violinist Pinchas Zukerman has said, "When it comes to vodka, Smirnoff plays second fiddle to none." We must therefore conclude that Smirnoff is the best vodka available.
Informal Fallacy
Formal/Informal: Sarah Jessica Parker, Ben Affleck, and Julia Roberts are Democrats. Therefore, it must be the case that all Hollywood Stars are Democrats.
Formal Fallacy
Formal/Informal: Some corporate mergers are arrangements that produce layoffs. Some arrangements that produce layoffs are occasions of economic unrest. Therefore, some corporate mergers are occasions of economic unrest.
Informal Fallacy
Formal/Informal: The ship of state is like a ship at sea. No sailor is ever allowed to protest orders from the captain. For the same reason, no citizen should ever be allowed to protest presidential policies.
argument against the person, abusive (ad hominem)
Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy is not worth the paper it's printed on. Nietzsche was an immoral reprobate who went completely insane from syphilis before he died.
Amphiboly
George said that he was interviewing for a job drilling oil wells in the supervisor's office. We can only conclude that the supervisor must have an awfully dirty office.
appeal to force
I know that some of you oppose the appointment of David Cole as the new sales manager. Upon further consideration, however, I am confident you will find him well qualified for the job. If Cole is not appointed, it may become necessary to make several personnel cutbacks in your department.
no fallacy
If 20 percent of adult Americans are functionally illiterate, then it's no wonder that morons get elected to public office. In fact, 20 percent of adult American's are functionally illiterate. Therefore, it's no wonder that morons get elected to public office..
equivocation
If Thomas gives Marie a ring, then Thomas and Marie will be engaged. Thomas did give Marie a ring. In fact , he phoned her just the other night. Therefore, Thomas and Marie are engaged.
weak analogy
If a car breaks down on the freeway, a passing mechanic is not obligated to render emergency road service. For similar reasons, if a person suffers a heart attack on the street, a passing physician is nt obligated to render emergency medical assistance.
appeal to unqualified authority
Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad says that the Holocaust is a fairy tale promoted for the purpose of garnering sympathy for Israel. in view of Ahmadinejad's apparent expertise in this area, we must conclude that the Holocaust is indeed a fairy tale, just as he says.
amphiboly
James said that he saw a picture of a beautiful girl stashed in Stephens locker. We can only conclude that Stephen has broken the rules, because girls are not allowed in the locker room. (ha, ha, ha).
division
Johnson is employed by the General Services administration, and everyone knows that the GSA is the most inefficient branch of the government. Therefore, Johnson must be an inefficient worker.
appeal to the people, direct
Ladies and gentlemen, today the lines of battle have been drawn. When the din of clashing armor has finally died away, the Republican party will emerge Victorious! We are the true party of the American people! We embody the values that all real Americans hold sacred! We cherish and protect our founding father's vision that gave birth to the Constitution! We stand for decency and righteousness, for self-determination and the liberty to conduct our affairs as each of us freely chooses. In the face of our standard bearing the American eagle of freedom, our muddle-headed, weak-knead opponents with their collective mentalities and their deluded programs for social reform will buckle and collapse! Victory will be ours, so help us God!
no fallacy
Lester Brown, universally respected author of the yearly State of the World report, has said that cutting down tropical rain forests is one of the ten most serious worldwide problems. Thus, it must be the case that this is indeed a very serious problem.
equivocation
Motives and desires exert forces on people, causing them to choose one thing over another. But force is a physical property, governed by the laws of physics. Therefore, human choices are governed by the laws of physics.
missing the point
Mr. Rhodes is suffering from amnesia and has no recollection whatever of the events of the past two weeks. We can only conclude that he did not commit the crime of murdering his wife a week ago, as he has been accused of doing.
appeal to ignorance
No one has ever been able to prove the existence of extrasensory perception. We must therefore conclude that extrasensory perception is a myth.
appeal to ignorance
No one has proved conclusively that America's nuclear power plants constitute a danger to people living in their immediate vicinity. Therefore, it is perfectly safe to continue to guild nuclear power plants near large metropolitan centers.
weak analogy
No one would buy a pair of shoes without trying them on. Why should anyone be expected to get married without premarital sex?
begging the question
Of course abortion is permissible. After all, a woman has a right to do as she pleases with her own body.
appeal to the people, indirect
Of course you want to buy a pair of Slinky fashion jeans. Slinky jeans really show off your figure, and all the Hollywood starlets can be seen wearing them these days.
begging the question
People who lack humility have no sense of beauty because everyone who has a sense of beauty has humility.
begging the question
Picasso is the greatest artist of the twentieth century. We know that this is so because art critics have described him in these terms. Art critics have a keen sense of appreciation that it takes to realize that Picasso is the greatest artist of the twentieth century.
no fallacy
Probably no life exists on Venus. Teams of scientists have conducted exhaustive studies of the planet's surface and atmosphere.
argument against the person, abusive (ad hominem)
Professor Pearson's arguments in favor of the theory of evolution should be discounted. Pearson is a cocaine-snorting pervert and, according to some reports, a member of the Communist party.
no fallacy
Rudolf Hoss, commandant of the Auschwitz concentration camp, confessed to having exterminated one million people, most of whom were Jewish, in the Auschwitz gas chamber. We can only conclude that Hoss was either insane or an extremely evil person.
straw man(change focus of argument)
Senator Barrow advocates increased Social Security benefits for the poor. It is regrettable that the senator finds it necessary to advocate socialism. Socialism defeats initiative, takes away promised rewards, and leads directly to inefficiency and big government. It was tried for years in Eastern Europe, and it failed miserably. Clearly socialism is no good.
missing the point
Something is seriously wrong with high school education these days. After ten years of decline, SAT scores are still extremely low, and high school graduates are practically incapable of reading and writing. The obvious conclusion is that we should close the schools.
appeal to pity
Surely architect Norris is not responsible for the collapse of the Central Bank Towers. Norris has had nothing but trouble lately. His daughter eloped with a child molester, his son committed suicide, and his alcoholic wife recently left for Las Vegas with his retirement savings.
begging the question
Surely it is morally permissible to kill animals for food. If God did not want us to eat animals, God would not have made them out of meat.
appeal to force
Surely you welcome the opportunity to join our protective organization. Think of all the money you will lose from broken windows, overturned trucks, and damaged merchandise in the event of your not joining.
division
Switzerland is 48 percent Protestant. Heidi Gilsing is a Swiss. Therefore, Heidi Gilsing is 48 percent Protestant.
straw man
TV commentator Larry Kudlow argues that government should get off the back of the American business man. Obviously Kudlow wants to abolish government altogether. Yet without government there would be no defense, no judicial system, no Social Security, and no health and safety regulations. None of us wants to forgo these benefits. Thus we can see that Kudlow's argument is absurd.
hasty generalization (converse accident)
The Daily News carried an article this morning about three local teenagers who were arrested on charges of drug possession. Teenagers these days are nothing but a bunch of junkies.
accident
The First Amendment to the Constitution prevents the government from interfering with the free exercise of religion. The liturgical practice of the Religion of Internal Enlightenment involves human sacrifice. Therefore, it would be wrong for the government to interfere with this practice.
hasty generalization (converse accident)
The abstinence only policy for birth control just does not work. After all, it did not work for Jamie Lynn Spears, and it did not work for Bristol Palin, either..
no fallacy
The accumulation of pressure in a society is similar to the build-up of pressure in a boiler. If the pressure in a boiler increases beyond a critical point, the boiler will explode. Accordingly, if a government represses its people beyond a certain point, the people will rise up and revolt.
tu quoque
The editors of the Daily Register have accused our company of being one of the cities worst water polluters. But the Daily Register is responsible for much more pollution than we are. After all, they own the Western Paper Company, and that company discharges tons of chemical residue into city's river every day.
appeal to pity
The position open in the accounting department should be given to Frank Thompson. Frank has six hungry children to feed, and his wife desperately needs an operation to save her eyesight.
slippery slope
The secretaries have asked us to provide lounge areas where they can spend their coffee breaks. The request will have to be refused. If we give them lounge areas, next they will be asking for spas and swimming pools. Then it will be racquetball courts, tennis courts and fitness centers. Expenditures for these facilities will drive us into bankruptcy.
false cause
There are more churches in New York City than in any other city in the nation, and more crimes are committed in New York City than anywhere else. So, if we are to eliminate crime,, we must abolish the churches.
appeal to unqualified authority
There must be something to psychical research. Three famous physicists took it seriously.
red herring
This administration is not anti-German, as it has been alleged. Germany is a great country. It has contributed immensely to the world's artistic treasury. Goethe and Schiller made magnificent contributions to literature, and Bach, Beethoven, Wagner and Brahms did the same in music.
division
Water will quench one's thirst. Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. Therefore, hydrogen and oxygen will quench one's thirst.
red herring
We are all familiar with the complaint that over 40 million Americans are without health insurance. But Americas doctors, nurses and hospitals are among the best in the world. Thousands of people come from abroad every year to be treated here. Clearly there is nothing wrong with our health care system.
slippery slope
We don't dare let the animal rights activists get their foot in the door. If they sell us on the idea that dogs, cats and dolphins have rights, next it will be chickens and cows. that means no more chicken Kiev or prime rib. Next it will be worms and insects. This will lead to the decimation of our agricultural industry. The starvation of the human race will follow close behind.
red herring
We have ll heard the argument that too much television is the reason our students can't read and write. Yet, many of today's TV shows are excellent! 'Grey's Anatomy' unveils the personal lives of interns at an urban hospital. 'Law and Order' explores ethical issues in our criminal justice system. 'Gossip Girl' explores the world of privileged teenagers at an elite private school, and 'American Idol uncovers hidden musical talent. Today's TV iis just Great!
accident
Whoever thrusts a knife into another person should be arrested. But surgeons do precisely this when operating. Therefore, surgeons should be arrested.
complex question
Why is it so difficult for you to reach a decision?
begging the question
Women in military combat is insane. No society in its right mind would have such a policy. The military needs only young people and that means the only women who go are those in their child-bearing years. Kill them off and society will not be able to perpetuate itself. (Jack Carman)
false dichotomy
Would you rather invest in our nation's children or Pentagon waste? The choice is yours. (political ad)
Appeal to the people, indirect
You should read Irving Stone's latest novel right away. It's sold over a million copies, and practically everyone in the Manhattan cocktail circuit is talking about it.
red herring
the school board argues that our schools are in desperate need of repair. But the real reason our students are falling behind is that they spend too much time with their computers. Becoming educated means a lot more than learning how to point and click. The school board should send a letter to the parents urging them to monitor their kids' computer time.
