Chapter 3 - Neuroscience

_____ means Toward the front end ______ means Toward the rear end _____ means above another part ____ below another part ____ towards the side, away from the midline _____ towards the midline, away from the side ____Located close (approx) to the point of origin or attachment _____Located more distant from the point of origin or attachment ____ On the same side of the body (e.g., two parts on the left or two on the right) ____On the opposite side of the body (one on the left and one on the right) ____A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the front ___ A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the side ___ A plane that shows brain structures as seen from above

Anterior Posterior Superior Inferior Lateral Medial Proximal Distal Ipsilateral Contralateral Coronal/frontal plane Sagittal plane Horizontal/transverse plane

___ found that a patient who had lost the ability to speak had damage in part of his left frontal cortex. Additional patients with loss of speech also showed damage in and around that area, now known as ___ area

Broca, Broca's

___ fills the ventricles, flowing from the lateral ventricles to the third and fourth ventricles. From the fourth ventricle, some of it flows into the __ canal of the spinal cord, but more goes into the narrow spaces between the brain and the thin ___, membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord. In one of those narrow spaces, the ____ space, the blood gradually reabsorbs the ___.

CSF, central, meninges, subarachnoid, CSF

If the flow of ___ is obstructed, it accumulates within the ventricles or in the subarachnoid space, increasing pressure on the brain. When this occurs in infants, the skull bones spread, causing an overgrown head. This condition, known as ___, can lead to mental retardation.

CSF, hydrocephalus

One method is computerized axial tomography, better known as a __. They help detect tumors and other structural abnormalities. Shoes detailed brain anatomy in living people.

CT or CAT scan

The outer portion of the cerebral hemispheres are is the ____. Under the here are other structures, including the ___ and the ___.

Cerebral cortex, thalamus and basal ganglia.

______ cushions the brain against mechanical shock when the head moves. It also provides buoyancy. Just as a person weighs less in water than on land, cerebrospinal fluid helps support the weight of the brain. It also provides a reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the brain and spinal cord.

Cerebrospinal fluid

A set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, with similar properties

Column

An electric ___ is a crude technique that damages the axons passing through as well as the neurons in the area itself. Instead, they might ___ a chemical that kills neurons, or disables them temporarily, without harming the passing axons. Another option is the ___ approach that directs a mutation to a gene that regulates one type of cell, transmitter, or receptor.

Electric lesion, inject, gene-knockout

A long, deep sulcus

Fissure

A cluster of neuron cell bodies, usually outside the CNS (as in the sympathetic nervous system)

Ganglion

A protuberance on the surface of the brain

Gyros/gyri

The ____ is a large structure between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex, mostly toward the posterior of the forebrain. This area is critical for certain types of ___, especially those for individual events. It is also essential for monitoring where you are and where you are going.

Hippocampus, memories

The ___, a small area near the base of the brain just ventral to the thalamus, has widespread connections with the rest of the brain. Partly through nerves and partly by releasing hormones, this area conveys messages to the pituitary gland, altering its release of hormones. Damage to any ___ nucleus leads to abnormalities in motivated behaviors, such as feeding, drinking, temperature regulation, sexual behavior, fighting, or activity level.

hypothalamus, hypothalamic

In humans and most other mammals, the cerebral cortex contains up to six distinct ___. Lamina ___, which sends long axons to the spinal cord and other distant areas, is thickest in the motor cortex, which has the greatest control of the muscles. Lamina __, which receives axons from the sensory nuclei of the thalamus, is prominent in the sensory areas of the cortex (visual, auditory, and somatosensory) but absent from the motor cortex.

laminae, V/5, IV/4

The postcentral gyrus includes four bands of cells parallel to the central sulcus. Two of the bands receive mostly ___ information, one receives ___ information, and one receives a combination of both.

light-touch, deep pressure

Several interlinked structures, known as the ___, form a border around the brainstem. These structures are particularly important for motivations and emotions, such as eating, drinking, sexual activity, anxiety, and aggression. This system includes the ____, hypothalamus, hippocampus, ____, and cingulate gyrus of the cerebral cortex.

limbic system, olfactory bulb, amygdala

A __ is similar to a EEG, but instead of measuring electrical activity, it measures the faint magnetic fields generated by brain activity. __ recording identifies the approximate location of activity to within about a centimeter. An ___ has excellent temporal resolution, showing changes from one millisecond to the next. __ can identify the times at which various brain areas respond and thereby trace a wave of brain activity from its point of origin to the other areas that process it

magnetoencephalograph (MEG)

Although the brain has no pain receptors, the ____ do, and meningitis—inflammation of the ___—is painful. Swollen blood vessels in the ____ are responsible for the pain of a migraine headache

meninges

The prefrontal cortex has three major regions. The posterior portion is associated mostly with ____. The middle zone pertains to ___ memory, cognitive control, and emotional reactions. The anterior zone of the prefrontal cortex is important for making ___, evaluating which of several courses of action is likely to achieve the best outcome.

movement, working, decisions

One of the structures on the ventral surface of the forebrain, the ____, receives input from the hypothalamus and basal ganglia and sends axons that release acetylcholine to widespread areas in the cerebral cortex. This area is a key part of the brain's system for arousal, wakefulness, and attention. Patients with Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease have impairments of ____ and ____ because of inactivity or deterioration of this area.

nucleus basalis, attention and intellect

The ___ lobe, at the posterior (caudal) end of the cortex is the main target for visual information. The posterior pole of this lobe is known as the primary visual cortex, or striate cortex, because of its striped appearance in cross section. Destruction of any part of the striate cortex causes cortical blindness in the related part of the visual field. The eyes provide the stimulus, and the visual cortex provides the experience.

occipital,

For convenience, we group these areas into four lobes named for the skull bones that lie over them:

occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal.

If brain damage impairs some behavior, stimulation should increase it. ___, using light to control a limited population of neurons. This follows 3 steps. Step one: make light activated on/off switch for Neuron Step two: use virus to inject on/off switch into neuron Step three: use tiny lights to activate switch. researchers can study the function of given cells in greater detail than ever before.

optogenetics

The___ nervous system, sometimes called the "rest and digest" system, facilitates vegetative, nonemergency responses. This system also promotes sexual arousal, including erection in males. Although the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems produce contrary effects, both are constantly active to varying degrees, and many stimuli arouse parts of both systems.

parasympathetic

The __ nervous system is also known as the craniosacral system because it consists of the cranial nerves and nerves from the sacral spinal cord. These ganglia are not arranged in a chain near the spinal cord. Rather, long ___ axons extend from the spinal cord to parasympathetic ganglia close to each internal organ. Shorter ___ fibers then extend from the parasympathetic ganglia into the organs themselves (like cup phones). Because the parasympathetic ganglia are not linked to one another, they act more independently than the sympathetic ganglia do.

parasympathetic, preganglionic, postganglionic

The ___ lobe monitors all the information about eye, head, and body positions and passes it on to brain areas that control movement. This lobe is essential not only for spatial information but also numerical information

parietal

The process of relating skull anatomy to behavior is known as __. This process was invalid for many reasons. One problem was that skull shape does not match brain anatomy. Another problem was that they based many conclusions on small numbers of people who apparently shared some personality aspect and a similar bump on the skull.

phrenology

The __ gland is an endocrine gland attached to the base of the hypothalamus. In response to messages from the ___, this gland synthesizes hormones that the blood carries to organs throughout the body.

pituitary, hypothalamus

The __ lies anterior and ventral to the medulla. Like the medulla, it contains nuclei for several cranial nerves. Here, axons from each half of the brain cross to the opposite side of the spinal cord so that the left hemisphere controls the muscles of the right side of the body and the right hemisphere controls the left side.

pons

The most anterior portion of the frontal lobe is the __. Neurons in this area have huge numbers of synapses and integrate an enormous amount of information.

prefrontal cortex

a ___ is a surgical disconnection of the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain. Among the common consequences of this surgery were apathy, a loss of the ability to plan and take initiative, memory disorders, distractibility, and a loss of emotional expressions. People with ___ damage lost their social inhibitions, ignoring the rules of polite, civilized conduct. They often acted impulsively because they failed to calculate adequately the probable outcomes of their behaviors.

prefrontal lobotomy, prefrontal

Many nuclei of the thalamus receive their input from a ___ system, such as vision, and transmit information to a single area of the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex sends information ____ to the thalamus, prolonging and magnifying certain kinds of input and focusing attention on particular stimuli

sensory, back. You got this, Lea :)

The ___ is the part of the __ within the spinal column. The spinal cord communicates with all the sense organs and muscles except those of the head. It is a segmented structure, and each segment has on both the left and right sides a sensory nerve and a motor nerve.

spinal cord, CNS

Under the tectum lies the ___, the intermediate level of the midbrain. Another midbrain structure, the substantia nigra, gives rise to a _____-containing pathway that facilitates readiness for movement.

tegmentum, dopamine

The ___ lobe is the lateral portion of each hemisphere, near the temples. This human lobe—in most cases, the left lobe—is essential for understanding spoken language. This lobe also contributes to complex aspects of vision, including perception of movement and recognition of faces.

temporal

The ___ lobes are also important for emotional and motivational behaviors. Damage to this lobe can lead to a set of behaviors known as the ___ syndrome. Previously wild and aggressive monkeys fail to display normal fears and anxieties after damage to this lobe. They put almost anything they find into their mouths and attempt to pick up snakes and lighted matches.

temporal, Klüver-Bucy

The __ and ___ form the diencephalon, a section distinct from the telencephalon, which is the rest of the ___. Most sensory information goes first to the ___, which processes it and sends output to the cerebral cortex. An exception to this rule is olfactory information, which goes from the olfactory receptors to the olfactory bulbs and then directly to the cerebral cortex.

thalamus and hypothalamus, forebrain, thalamus

Forebrain major structures

thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia

The nervous system begins its development as a tube surrounding a fluid canal. The canal persists into adulthood as the central canal in the center of the spinal cord, and as the ventricles, four fluid-filled cavities within the brain. Each hemisphere contains one of the two large lateral ventricles. Toward their posterior, they connect to the third ventricle, positioned at the midline, separating the left ___ from the right. The third ventricle connects to the fourth ventricle in the center of the ____.

thalamus, medulla

The brain has three major divisions—

the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain

Many neurons from the gray matter of the spinal cord send axons to the brain or to other parts of the spinal cord through the ___, containing myelinated axons. The __ matter is a person and the ___ matter is the switch board

white matter, gray, white

A row or layer of cell bodies separated from other cell bodies by a layer of axons and dendrites

Lamina

An ___ is based on the fact that any atom with an odd-numbered atomic weight, such as hydrogen, has an axis of rotation. Atomic nuclei release electromagnetic energy as they relax and return to their original axis. By measuring that __, these devices form an image of the brain. Researchers using these methods sometimes find that a particular brain area is enlarged in certain types of people. For example, it has been reported that people with a larger __ tend to have more social contacts

MRI, energy, amygdala

The __ can be regarded as an enlarged extension of the spinal cord. Just as the lower parts of the body connect to the spinal cord via sensory and motor nerves, the head and the organs connect to the ___ and adjacent areas by 12 pairs of cranial nerves. The cranial nerves originating in the ___ control vital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing, and sneezing. Because __ receptors, which suppress activity, are abundant in the ___, ___ can produce a dangerous decrease in breathing and heart rate.

Medulla, opiate(s)

A set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a sensory organ to the CNS

Nerve

A cluster of neuron cell bodies within the CNS

Nucleus

The ___ lobe lies between the occipital lobe and the central sulcus, a deep groove in the surface of the cortex. The area just posterior to the central sulcus, the ___, or primary somatosensory cortex, receives sensations from touch receptors, muscle-stretch receptors, and joint receptors.

Parietal, postcentral gyrus

__ provides a high-resolution image of activity in a living brain by recording the emission of radioactivity from injected chemicals. First, the person receives an injection of glucose or some other chemical containing radioactive atoms. Because the most active brain areas increase their use of glucose, tracking the levels of glucose tells us something about brain activity. When a radioactive atom decays, it releases a positron that immediately collides with a nearby electron, emitting two gamma rays in opposite directions. When two detectors record gamma rays at the same time, they identify a spot halfway between those detectors as the point of origin of the gamma rays.

Positron-emission tomography (PET)

People with damage to the ___ have trouble on the delayed-response task, in which they see or hear something, and then have to respond to it after a delay. Also, people with ___cortical damage often make decisions that seem impulsive, because they failed to weigh all the likely pros and cons.

Prefrontal cortex, prefrontal

A fold or groove that separates one gyrus from another

Sulcus/sulci

Each segment of the spinal cord sends sensory information to the brain and receives motor commands from the brain. All that information passes through tracts of axons in the spinal cord. If the spinal cord is cut at a given segment, the brain loses sensation from that segment and below. The brain also loses motor control over all parts of the body served by that segment and the lower ones. (T/F)

T

Compared to other mammals of comparable size, the primates—monkeys, apes, and humans—have a larger cerebral cortex, more folding, and more neurons per unit of volume T/F Curiously, the pons occupies a nearly constant percentage—about 10 to 14 percent of the brain in most species T/F

T, F (cerebellum)

Midbrain major structures

Tectum, tegmentum, superior colliculus, inferior colliculus, substantia nigra

A set of axons within the CNS, also known as a projection. If axons extend from cell bodies in structure A to synapses onto B, we say that the fibers "project" from A onto B

Tract

__, the application of magnetic stimulation to a portion of the scalp, can stimulate neurons in the area below the magnet, if the stimulation is sufficiently brief and mild. With stronger stimulation it inactivates the neurons, producing a "virtual lesion" that outlasts the magnetic stimulation itself

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Many of the most interesting results come from humans with brain damage, but human studies have their limitations. An __ is the removal of a brain area, generally with a surgical knife. Because surgical removal is difficult for tiny structures below the surface of the brain, researchers sometimes make a ___, meaning damage, by means of a __ instrument, a device for the precise placement of electrodes in the brain

ablation, lesion, stereotaxic

The parasympathetic nervous system's axons release the neurotransmitter __ onto the organs. Most sympathetic nervous system axons release __, although a few, such as those onto the sweat glands, use __. For example, over-the-counter cold remedies exert most of their effects by blocking __ activity or increasing __ activity. Because the flow of sinus fluids is a __ response, drugs that block the __ system inhibit sinus flow.

acetylcholine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, parasympathetic (PS), sympathetic, PS, PS

The __ nervous system consists of neurons that receive information from and send commands to the heart, intestines, and other organs. Its two parts are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The __ nervous system, a network of nerves that prepare the organs for a burst of vigorous activity, consists of chains of ganglia just to the left and right of the spinal cord's central regions (the thoracic and lumbar areas). These ganglia have connections back and forth with the spinal cord.

autonomic, sympathetic

Dorsal means toward the ___ and ventral means toward the ___. (A ventriloquist is literally a "stomach talker.") The dorsal-ventral axis of the human brain is at a right angle to the dorsal-ventral axis of the spinal cord.

back, stomach

The ___ integrate motivational and emotional behavior to increase the vigor of selected actions. It is critical for learned skills and habits, as well as other types of learning that develop gradually with extended experience.

basal ganglia

The ____, a group of subcortical structures lateral to the thalamus, include three major structures: the ___ nucleus, the putamen, and the ___ pallidus. Damage to this area impairs movement, as in conditions such as Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease.

basal ganglia, caudate, globus

The question of how various brain areas produce a perception of a single object is known as the __ problem, or large-scale integration problem. Although researchers cannot fully explain this problem, they know what is necessary for it to occur: It occurs if you perceive __ sensations as happening at the __ and in approximately the same place. The near simultaneity of lights and sounds causes you to ___ them and perceive an illusion that alters your perception of one or the other. ___ often fails if the displays are flashed very briefly or while the viewer is distracted

binding, two, same time, bind, Binding

The medulla and pons, the midbrain, and certain central structures of the forebrain constitute the ____.

brainstem

The ___ is the brain and the spinal cord. The ___ connects the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body. Part of the ___ is the ___ nervous system, which consists of the axons conveying messages from the sense organs to the ___ and from the ___ to the muscles. Another part of the ____, the ___ nervous system, controls the heart, intestines, and other organs. The ___ nervous system has some of its cell bodies within the brain or spinal cord and some in clusters along the sides of the spinal cord.

central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous system (PNS), PNS, somatic, CNS, CNS, PNS, autonomic, autonomic

The ___ is a large hindbrain structure with many deep folds. Contributions to the control of movement, balance and coordination. People with damage to the __ have trouble shifting their attention back and forth between auditory and visual stimuli. They have difficulty with ___, such as judging whether one rhythm is faster than another. The ___ is also critical for certain types of ___ and conditioning.

cerebellum, timing, learning

Cells called the ____ along the walls of the four ventricles produce ____ , a clear fluid similar to blood plasma.

choroid plexus, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

The cells of the cortex are also organized into ___ of cells perpendicular to the laminae. The cells within a given ___ have similar properties to one another.

columns, Laminae are horizontal and columns are vertical

the entering __ roots (axon bundles) carry sensory information, and the exiting __ roots carry motor information. The cell bodies of the sensory neurons are in clusters of neurons outside the spinal cord, called the __

dorsal, ventral, dorsal root ganglia

Much more frequently, human research relies on noninvasive methods—that is, recordings from outside the skull. An __ records electrical activity of the brain through electrodes—ranging from just a few to more than a hundred—attached to the scalp. Electrodes glued to the scalp measure the average activity at any moment for the population of cells under the electrode. The same device used for an ___ can also record brain activity in response to a stimulus, in which case we call the results __ or ___

electroencephalograph (EEG), evoked potentials or evoked responses

Much more frequently, human research relies on noninvasive methods—that is, recordings from outside the skull. An ___records electrical activity of the brain through electrodes—ranging from just a few to more than a hundred—attached to the scalp. Electrodes glued to the scalp measure the average activity at any moment for the population of cells under the electrode. The same device can also record brain activity in response to a stimulus, in which case we call the results ___ or evoked responses

electroencephalograph (EEG), evoked potentials,

Most ___ studies have concentrated on identifying the functions of brain areas. Psychologists find it useful to distinguish several types of memory, such as implicit versus explicit and declarative versus procedural. Measuring placebo in brain, studying brain's ___ (what your brain does when you're doing nothing)

fMRI, default system

An ___ is a modified version of MRI based on hemoglobin (the blood protein that binds oxygen) instead of water. Researchers set the __ scanner to detect the amount of hemoglobin with oxygen. When a brain area becomes more active, two relevant changes occur: First, blood vessels __ to allow more blood flow to the area. Second, as the brain area uses ___, the percentage of hemoglobin with oxygen decreases. This scan responds to both of these processes. Need comparison of brain not doing activity first.

fMRI, dilate, oxygen

The ___, the most prominent part of the mammalian brain, consists of two cerebral hemispheres, one on the left and one on the right. Each hemisphere is organized to receive sensory information, mostly from the contralateral (opposite) side of the body. It controls muscles, mostly on the contralateral side, by way of axons to the spinal cord and the cranial nerve nuclei.

forebrain

The ___ lobe, containing the primary motor cortex and the prefrontal cortex, extends from the central sulcus to the anterior limit of the brain. The posterior portion of this lobe, the precentral gyrus or ___, is specialized for the control of fine movements, such as moving a ___.

frontal, primary motor cortex, finger

Sympathetic axons prepare the organs for "fight or flight," such as by increasing breathing and heart rate and decreasing digestive activity. Because the sympathetic __ are closely linked, they often act as a single system "in sympathy" with one another, although certain events activate some parts more than others. The sweat glands, the adrenal glands, the muscles that constrict blood vessels, and the muscles that erect the hairs of the skin have sympathetic input but no parasympathetic input.

ganglia

H-shaped ___ in the center of the cord is densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites.

gray matter

The cells on the outer surface of the cerebral cortex are ___ matter, and their axons extending inward are __ matter. Neurons in each hemisphere communicate with neurons in the corresponding part of the other hemisphere through two bundles of axons, the corpus callosum and the smaller ___ commissure

gray, white (Outside is gray because they are dirty like snow but the inward ones are covered and therefore white), anterior

Early in development the midbrain is in the middle of the brain before being surrounded by the forebrain. This area is more prominent in reptiles, amphibians, and fish. The swellings on each side of the tectum are the superior colliculus and the inferior colliculus. Both are important for sensory processing—the inferior colliculus for ___ and the superior colliculus for ____.

hearing, vision

The __, the posterior part of the brain, consists of the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum.

hindbrain

The ___ is essential for control of eating, drinking, temperature control, and reproductive behaviours. The ___ is part of the circuit that is most central for evaluating emotional information, especially with regard to fear.

hypothalamus, amygdala