Chapter 4: Carbohydrates: Sugars, Starches and Fibers

Fermentable

The extent to which bacteria in the GI tract can break down fibers to fragments that the body can use

Type 1 Diabetes

The less common type of diabetes in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin - referred to as childhood-onset diabetes because it is often precipitated by genetic issues that are present in birth -given to young children

Gluconeogenesis

The making of glucose from a noncarbohydrate source, converts protein to glucose

Type 2 Diabetes

The more common type of diabetes when the pancreas secretes insulin but it's not enough and it's not affective -preventable -common in overweight or obese children & adults

glycogenolysis

The process of converting excess glucose into glycogen in your liver and muscle.

endosperm

The starchy part of the grain kernel.

How many grams a day of carbohydrates do you need to prevent ketosis?

50-100 grams a day of carbohydrates

Maltose

A disaccharide composed of two glucose units; sometimes known as malt sugar present in barley and malted grains (glucose + glucose)

fiber

A form of complex carbohydrates from plants that humans cannot digest A nondigestible polysaccharide.

Epinephrine

A hormone of the adrenal gland that modulates the stress response -aka adrenaline -signals the liver cells to release glucose - "fight-or-flight" hormone -used when stress, bleeding, low blood glucose levels trigger its release

Glycemic Index

A method of classifying foods according to their potential for raising blood glucose -, how quickly the glucose is absorbed after a person eats, how high the blood glucose rises, and how quickly it returns to normal. - selecting foods with a low glycemic index is a practical way to improve glucose control and lower the risk of diabetes.

Galactose

A monosaccharide; part of the disaccharide lactose least sweet of the sugars found in few food (sugar beets, some dairy)

3 types of alternative sweeteners

artificial sweeteners, other high-intensity sweeteners, and sugar alcohols.

Dietary fiber is found is good amounts in four of the following foods except one. What food has the lowest amount of dietary fiber? a. apples b. chicken breasts c. whole-wheat crackers d. carrots e. beans

b

Which of these items is not an "added sugar"? a. nectar b. cinnamon c. corn syrup d. molasses e. tagatose

b

Insulin moves glucose from _____ into _______

blood , cells

A typical serving of fruits contains an average of about _____. a. 20 grams of carbohydrates b. 30 grams of carbohydrates c. 15 grams of carbohydrates d. 10 grams of carbohydrates e. 6 grams of carbohydrates

c

Total fiber refers to the sum of ________ . a. dietary and viscous fibers b. functional and viscous fibers c. dietary and functional fibers d. insoluble fibers and starch e. starch and cellulose

c. dietary and functional fibers

all carbohydrates are composed of

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

Which of the following statements is not true about carbohydrate structures? . Lactose is a disaccharide composed of glucose linked to galactose. b. Complex carbohydrates are polysaccharides consisting of many glucose units joined together. c. Simple carbohydrates include monosaccharides and disaccharides. d. Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose linked to galactose. e. Maltose is a disaccharide composed of glucose linked to glucose.

d Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose linked to fructose, not galactose.

Low FODMAP diets often are used to treat which condition? a. hypoglycemia b. lactose intolerance c. type 1 diabetes d. irritable bowel syndrome e. type 2 diabete

d triggering digestive symptoms like bloating, gas and stomach pai

Which of the following compounds is produced by the liver during the breakdown of fat when carbohydrates are not available? a. insulin b. gastric acids c. glucagon d. beta cells e. ketone bodies

e

legumes is example of what type of carbohydrate and why? good or bad source of fiber?

example of a complex carbohydrate that will increase blood sugar levels slowly because it is comprised of polysaccharides good source of fiber

Most lactose-intolerant people cannot consume any products that might contain lactose. true or false

false

People on strict lactose-free diets need to read labels and avoid foods with four of the following ingredients except one. Which is an acceptable food for this diet? a. whey b. gluten c. milk solids d. milk e. casein

gluten

What is the process of the liver storing glucose as glycogen known as...?

glycogenesis

The pancreas secretes _____ and ______

insulin and glucagon

what 2 hormones regulate Blood glucose homeostasis or brings glucose from storage?

insulin, which moves glucose from the blood into the cells, and glucagon, which brings glucose out of storage when needed.

honey is example of what type of carbohydrate and why? good or bad source of fiber?

is an example of a simple carbohydrate that will increase blood sugar levels quickly because it is comprised of monosaccharides poor source of fiber

What are two roles of fiber in the stomach...?

it delays gastric emptying & creates a feeling of satiety (sah-TIE-eh-tee)

What is the role of the pancreas in breaking down carbohydrates?

it produces pancreatic amylase that is released into the small intestine via the pancreatic duct

What role does epinephrine have in blood glucose levels?

it stimulates glycogenolysis and increases blood glucose levels

Why can it be bad for the body to use fat as energy...?

ketone bodies form and cause ketosis

in carb digestion, what final three enzymes break carbohydrate disaccharides into monosaccharides...?

lactase, maltase, & sucrase

Fructose and galactose are mostly metabolized in which organ? a. kidney b. small intestine c. liver d. stomach e. gallbladder

liver

What causes lactose intolerance?

low levels of the enzyme lactase. - Lactase activity declines with age, diseases, drug use -remains undigested in intestine, which attracts water

3 disaccharide enzymes

maltase, lactase, sucrase

How are carbohydrates broken down in the mouth?

mastication mixes food with saliva. Salivary amylase enzyme breaks down amylose and amylopectin into smaller chains of carbohydrates.

What role does the small intestine play in the digestion/absorption of carbohydrates?

most carbohydrate digestion occur here Pancreatic amylase breaks down the amylose and amylopectin and small chains of carbohydrates into maltose, a disaccharide. *Brush border enzymes break down all disaccharides into the monosaccharides glucose, fructose, and galactose, which are absorbed into the bloodstream.

how much and who in the population is affected by Lactose Intolerance? symptoms

Affects 70% population Elderly, Asians, African Americans, Scandinavians & Northern Europeans Symptoms: gas, cramps, diarrhea, bloating, abdominal pain

Hypoglycemia

An abnormally low blood glucose sugar / concentration -blood glucose rises after eating and then gradually falls back into the normal range

Amylase

An enzyme that hydrolyzes amyloe

Ketosis and what does it disturb?

An undesirably high concentration of ketone bodies in blood and urine, disturbs acid-base balance

Carbohydrates

Compounds composed of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen arranged as monosaccharides or multiples of monosaccharides; most have a ratio of one carbon molecule to one water molecule

Polysaccharides

Compounds composed of many monosaccharides linked together 3 types: glycogen, starches, and fibers.

What links two monosaccharides together?

Condensation

What breaks down carbohydrates, specifically starch, in the mouth...?

salivary amylase

Where does nutrient absorption of Glucose and galactose take place and how?

small intestine by Active Transport

Ketone bodies are an alternative food source during _______

starvation

saccharide means

sugar

added sugar

sugars added to foods during processing or preparation

Lactase

Enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose

Maltase

Enzyme that hydrolyzes maltose

Sucrase

Enzyme that hydrolyzes sucrose

What role does the liver play in the digestion/absorption of carbohydrates?

Glucose is taken up by it from the blood. Most glucose is returned to the blood to be picked up and used by the body cells, or the body can use glucose for energy, convert it to glycogen, or store it as fat.

Stevia is an ________ and generally recognized as ____

Herbal product , safe

What breaks a disaccharide in two?

Hydrolysis

When is lactase the highest?

Immediately after birth It declines with age

germ

In grains, the seed of the grain kernel.

What does pancreatic amylase do and where?

In the small intestine, it breaks down remaining starch into maltose

how to treat lactose intolerance

Individualize diet Gradually add dairy products to your diet Use of fluid milk restricted Moderate use yogurt, cheese. Eat dairy foods with a meal or snack Acidophilus milk, Lactaid Milk and Lactaid milk products or soy milk Eat smaller amounts throughout day rather than large amount at one time Consume lactase pills with lactose-laden meals or snacks

what are the carbohydrates in the carbohydrates family?

Monosaccharides: single sugars Disaccharides: pairs of monosaccharides Polysaccharides: chains of monosaccharides

Sugars

Simple carbohydrates composed of monosaccharides or disaccharides

grains

1 ounce of this provides about 15 g of carbohydrates

when is insulin and glucagon released?

Blood sugar is high Blood sugar is low

Resistant starches

Starches that escape from digestion and absorbtion in the small intestine of healthy people

High-Intensity Sweeteners

Stevia leaves and monk fruit

Artificial sweeteners

Sugar substitutes that provide negligible, if any, energy give foods a sweet flavor without adding extra kcalories; they are sometimes called nonnutritive sweeteners

Health Effects of Added Sugar

sugars and syrups that are added to food during processing or preparation Sugar & obesity. - 1/2 of all added sugar from soft drinks & fruit drinks (2013) - Americans average 475 kcal/day added sugar (30 tsp) 2. Sugar & heart disease. - High sugar intake associated with higher TG levels and lower HDL 3. Sugar & diabetes. - May increase risk. - 300,000 drinking 1-2 sodas/day = 26% more likely diabetes, 2010 study. 4. Sugar contributes to dental caries. - How often and how much 5. Sugar contributes empty kcalories to the diet

How are carbohydrates broken down in the stomach?

the HCL acidity of the stomach inactivates the salivary amylase enzyme; thus very little digestion of carbohydrates occurs in the stomach

Glucagon

-- Glucagon is a hormone secreted by the pancreas when blood glucose falls. A hormone secreted by pancreas in response to low blood glucose concentration; - signals the liver cells to break down a polysaccharide molecule called glycogen into smaller molecules of glucose, which increases the level of glucose in the blood. alpha pancreatic cell

Insulin

-Insulin is a hormone secreted by the pancreas as blood glucose rises. A hormone released by the pancreas in response to elevated/high blood glucose concentration; controls the transport of glucose from the bloodstream into the muscle and fat cells -signals the cells of the body to absorb and store glucose, which decreases the level of glucose in the blood. -Directs conversion of glucose in excess of immediate energy needs into glycogen (glycogenesis) in liver and muscle cells (limited capacity) -will Decreases blood glucose beta pancreatic cell

Glycogen

-The storage form of glucose in humans and animals. stored in the liver and muscles An animal polysaccharide composed of glucose; a storage form of glucose manufactured and stored in the liver and muscles; not a significant food source of carbohydrate and is not counted as a dietary carbohydrate in foods contains hundreds of glucose units in highly branched chains

Disaccharides

-all disaccharides are pairs of monosaccharides two sugar units -glucose is present in all disaccharides -3 major disaccharides: sucrose, maltose, lactose

Glucose

-monosaccharide -blood sugar -main energy source for the body -part of every disaccharide

Monosaccharides , 3 examples

-single sugars / simple carbs, one unit. single ring C6H12O6 a. Glucose b. Galactose c. Fructose

Negative Health Effects of Fiber

1. Bulk effect may prevent adequate kcalorie intake 2. Abdominal discomfort 3. May interfere with mineral absorption

Functions of Carbohydrates

1. Primary energy source. 4/kcal/g 2. Secondary energy storage - glycogen. 3. Helps prevent ketosis from incomplete fat oxidation. 4. Spares protein for energy use 5. Maintains glucose homeostasis 6. Excess stored at fat. 7. Fiber promotes healthy digestive system function.

How much fiber to most americans get daily?

15 grams per day

About 15 percent of the average daily energy intake comes from concentrated sugars that have been refined and added to foods.

15%

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends that consumers limit their daily intake of added sugars to 10 percent or less of total kcalories. On a 2000-calorie diet, how many calories from added sugar would this be?

200

What is the dietary reference intake for carbohydrates?

45 to 65 percent of energy requirement

What are complex carbohydrates? and what are they know as

A category of carbohydrates that contains many sugar units combined. much larger molecules comprised of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides. - Since organisms need to break polysaccharides down into monosaccharides before they can enter the bloodstream, digestion and absorption are much slower, which delays the entry of sugar into the blood polysaccharides exs: - Starches - Glycogen - Fiber, cellulose

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction in which one molecule is split into two molecules, with hydrogen added to one and a hydroxyl group to the other -breaks a disaccharide in two

Condensation

A chemical reaction in which water is released as two molecules combine to form one larger product -links two monosaccharides together

Diabetes

A chronic disorder of carbohydrate metabolism, usually resulting from insufficient or ineffective insulin

Lactose intolerance

A condition that results from the inability to digest the milk sugar lactose; characterized by bloating, gas, abdominal discomfort and diarrhea; differs from a milk allergy

Sucrose

A disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose; Sucrose is the sweetest of the disaccharides present in many fruits and some vegetables and grains commonly known as table sugar, beet sugar, or cane sugar (glucose + fructose)

Lactose

A disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose; commonly known as milk sugar main carbohydrate in milk (glucose + galactose)

Viscous

A gel-like consistency

Lactase deficiency

A lack of the enzyme required to digest the disaccharide lactose into its component monosaccharides

Fructose

A monosaccharide; sometimes known as fruit sugar or levulose -found abundantly in fruits, honey, and saps -sweetest of the sugars

Phytic acid

A non-nutrient component of plant seeds; also called phytate; Phytic acid occurs in the husks of grains, legumes, and seeds and is capable of binding materials in insoluble complexes in the intestine, which the body excretes unused

Where does nutrient absorption of fructose take place and how?

Facilitated Diffusion

True or False Lactose intolerance is the same as a milk allergy

False Lactose intolerance is different than a milk allergy

What foods take the longest and shortest time to digest?

Fats are the most difficult and take the greatest amount of time to digest. Simple carbohydrates are the fastest to be digested.

Positive Health Effects of Fiber

May protect against heart disease/stoke a. Blood pressure b. Improve lipid profiles ( cholesterol) c. inflammation 2. Weight management 3. May prevent colon cancer. 4. Helps control glycemic response. 5. Decrease in diverticular disease & decline in hemorrhoids.

Soluble fibers

Nonstarch polysaccharides that dissolve in water to form a gel -found in oats, barley, legumes, and citrus fruits (apples, citrus, grapes) -fermented by intestinal bacteria.

Insoluble fibers

Nonstarch polysaccharides that do not dissolve in water -not fermented by intestinal bacteria. -promote bowel movements, alleviate constipation -found in whole grains (bran) and vegetables -wheat brand, whole-grain cereal, vegetables, corn bran

Dietary fibers

Nonstarch polysaccharides that the body cannot digest and use for energy -found in all plant derived foods-vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and legumes. -most are polysaccharides

_______(organ) secretes _______(hormone) to make sure _______ goes into cells and that _______ goes into liver. If there is still more ______ after it's been stored, the excess will be converted to ____ and stored for later.

Pancreas Insulin Glucose Glycogen Glucose Fat

Starches

Plant polysaccharides composed of many glucose molecules lined together in branched chains (amylopectin) or unbranched chains (amylose). -plant cells store glucose as starches - Grains are the richest food source of starch

Sugar alcohols

Sugarlike compounds that can be derived from fruits or commercially produced from dextrose; absorbed more slowly than other sugars and metabolized differently in the human body; - not readily utilized by ordinary mouth bacteria -sugar-free" or reduced-kcalorie products referred as nutritive sweeteners. -provides kclaories

Nutritive sweetener

Sweeteners that yield energy

Nonnutritive sweeteners

Sweeteners that yield no energy (or insignificant energy)

What is the recommended dietary allowance RDA for carbohydrates?

The DRI says 130 grams per day for brain function

How much fiber is recommended

The DRI says 14 grams per 1000 calories to promote heart health so 28 grams of fiber for 2000 diet -% DV = 25 g - AI 38 g for men; AI 25 g for women -Three or more servings whole grain

Protein-sparing action

The action of carbohydrate in providing energy that allows protein to be used for other purposes

Acid-base balance

The equilibrium in the body between acid and bace concentrations

Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI)

The estimated amount of a sweetener that individuals can safely consume each day over the course of a lifetime without adverse effect

Glycemic response

The extent to which a food raises the blood glucose concentration and elicits an insulin response -refers to how quickly glucose is absorbed after a person eats, how high blood glucose rises, and how quickly it returns to normal.

Satiety

The feeling of fullness and satisfaction that occurs after a meal and inhibits eating until the next meal

bran

The indigestible outer shell of the grain kernel.

What are "simple carbohydrates"...? and what are they know as

a category of carbohydrates that contain a single sugar unit one or two sugar molecules. Because of this, they are digested and absorbed rapidly, thus entering the bloodstream and increasing blood sugar levels quickly. Foods that contain many simple sugars are generally those devoid of complex molecules, such as fiber or starch. An example of a simple carbohydrate is honey. monosaccharides and disaccharides ; sugars

salivary amylase

a digestive enzyme that begins breaking down carbohydrate (starch) in the mouth; other important enzymes during carb digestion include panreatic amylase, maltase, sucrase, and lactase

How is glycogen typically stored in the body? a. 100 percent in muscle cells b. 1/2 in the muscle cells, 1/4 in the peripheral tissues, and 1/4 in the stomach c. 1/2 in the liver and 1/2 in the muscle cells d. 1/4 in the liver and 3/4 in the muscle cells e. 3/4 in muscle tissue and 1/4 in brain tissu

d. 1/4 in the liver and 3/4 in the muscle cells

Storage forms of glucose in living things include _____.

e. glycogen and starch

The action of bacterial enzymes on fiber in the large intestine results in the _____. a. release of small amounts of polysaccharides b. delay of gastric emptying c. release of acid secretions d. release of amylase e. release of short-chain fatty acids

e. release of short-chain fatty acids

What three things can the liver do with glucose...?

use it, store it as glycogen, or store it as fat

Ketone bodies

when there is no glucose available in the cells, because fat can't be broken down completely produced in the liver

What leads to the productions of ketone bodies?

when there is no glucose, because fat can't be broken down completely