Chapter 4: Learning and Perception

Halo Effect

A perception problem in which an individual assesses a person positively or negatively in all situations based on an existing general assessment of the person.

Operant Conditioning Theory

An explanation for consequence-based learning that assumes learning results from simple conditioning, and that higher mental functioning is irrelevant.

When a manager consistently believes that the subordinate is responsible for poor performance, s/he is guilt of: A. Halo effect B. Stereotyping C. Self-serving bias D. Logical error E. Fundamental attribution error

E. Fundamental attribution error

Implicit Person Theories

Personal theories about what personality traits and abilities occur together, and how these attributes are manifested in behavior.

A Fundamental attribution error occurs when: A. Behavior and overestimate the effect of external causes B. No attribution is made C. Observers tend to underestimate the impact of internal causes on other people's D. None of the above

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Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

A formal procedure focused on improving task performance through positive reinforcement of desired behaviors and extinction of undesired behaviors.

Projecting

A perception problem in which an individual assumes that others share his or her values and beliefs.

Stereotyping

A perception problem in which an individual bases perceptions about members of a group on a generalized set of beliefs about the group's characteristics.

Fundamental Attribution Error

A perception problem in which an individual is too likely to attribute the behavior of others to internal rather than external causes.

Self-serving Bias

A perception problem in which an individual is too likely to attribute the failure of others to internal causes and the successes of others to external causes, whereas the same individual will be too likely to attribute his own failure to external causes and his own successes to internal causes.

Perception

A process that involves sensing various aspects of a person, task, or event, and forming impressions based on selected inputs.

Learning

A process which individuals change their relatively permanent behavior based on positive or negative experiences in a situation.

Punishment

A reinforcement contingency in which a behavior is followed by a negative consequence, thereby reducing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations.

Positive Reinforcement

A reinforcement contingency in which a behavior is followed by a positive consequence, thereby increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations.

Extinct

A reinforcement contingency in which a behavior is followed by the absence of a previously encountered positive consequence, thereby reducing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations.

Negative Reinforcement

A reinforcement contingency in which a behavior is followed by the withdrawal of a previously encountered negative consequence, thereby increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations.

Intermittent Reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule in which a reward does not occur after each instance of a behavior or set of behaviors.

Continuous Reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule in which a reward occurs after each instance of a behavior or set of behaviors.

Variable Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that becomes available after a variable period has passed since the previous reinforcement.

Fixed Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that becomes available only after a fixed period has passed since the previous reinforcement.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that is introduced after the desired behavior has occurred a fixed number of times.

Variable Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that is introduced after the desired behavior has occurred a variable number of times.

Simulation

A representation of a real system that allows associates and managers to try various actions and receive feedback on the consequences of those actions.

The simplest schedule is _________, where a reward occurs after each instance of a particular behavior or set of behaviors. A. Continuous reinforcement B. Variable ratio C. Intermittent reinforcement D. Fixed interval E. Variable interval

A. Continuous reinforcement

Learning refers to relatively _____ changes in human capabilities. A. Permanent B. Temporary C. Intermittent D. Both temporary and intermittent E. Both permanent and temporary

A. Permanent

A way to facilitate adult learning is to explain the importance of what is being learned. A. True B. False

A. True

Behaviorists adopted the position that all behavior is the result of simple conditioning. A. True B. False

A. True

Social Cognitive Theory

An explanation for consequence-based learning that acknowledges the higher mental functioning of human beings and the role such functioning can play in learning.

Self- Efficacy

An individual's belief that he or she will be able to perform a specific task in a given situation.

When making internal-external attributions, people depend on their perceptions of all of the following except: A. Consensus B. Decisiveness C. Consistency D. Distinctiveness

B. Decisiveness

As a manager, you have been attentive and understanding of complaints by John and his co-workers. You have hoped that this would help John's commitment to the team you lead. Lately, you have realized that John's complaints have been mostly trivial. Recognizing this, you refuse to listen whenever John complains about his co-workers. This is an example of: A. Negative Reinforcement B. Extinction C. Punishment D. Positive Reinforcement E. Shaping

B. Extinction

A fundamental attribution problem occurs when an individual is too likely to attribute the behavior of others to external causes rather than internal causes. A. True B. False

B. False

The Social Learning Theory rejects the idea that learning can also occur by anticipating consequences of others' behavior or by modeling others. A. True B. False

B. False

Three specific methods an organization can use to train employees are OB Mod, stimulation, and learning from failure. A. True B. False

B. False

When we see a person's behavior as high in consistency, low in consensus, and low in distinctiveness, we tend to attribute that behavior to: A. External factors B. Internal factors C. The job D. No attribution is possible

B. Internal Factors

When we see a person's behavior as low in consistency, high in consensus, and high in distinctiveness, we tend to attribute the behavior to: A. External factors B. Internal factors C. Family relationships D. No attribution is possible

B. Internal factors

A fundamental attribution error occurs when: A. Observers tend to underestimate the impact of internal causes on other people's behavior and overestimate the effect of external causes B. Observers tend to overestimate the impact of internal causes on other people's behavior and underestimate the effect of external causes C. No attribution is made D. None of the above

B. Observers tend to overestimate the impact of internal causes on other people's behavior and underestimate the effect of external causes

To be a successful salesperson, Jessica must always be at her best because she knows that there would be a variable number of sales contacts occurring between actual sales. This is an example of: A. Fixed ratio B. Variable ratio C. Fixed interval D. Continuous reinforcement E. Variable interval

B. Variable ratio

Associates introduced to a new organization or to new tasks may need to learn new ______ that will make them _____ in the new situation. A. Tasks, Important B. Ways of behaving, Popular C. Perceptions, Capable D. Behaviors, Effective E. None of these

D. Behaviors, Effective

Learning takes place only when changes in what occur: A. Knowledge B. Attitude C. Beliefs D. Capabilities

D. Capabilities

Which of the following is NOT a problem in accurately perceiving others: A. Halo effect B. Projecting C. Stereotyping D. Illogical error

D. Illogical error

Which of the following is NOT a common intermittent schedule found in organizations: A. Variable Interval B. Fixed Ratio C. Fixed Interval D. Intermittent Radio

D. Intermittent Ratio

Typically, women are perceived to be gentler and more nurturing than men. This is an example of: A. Actor-cased error B. Halo error C. Logical error D. Stereotyping E. Projecting

D. Stereotyping

The variable ratio schedule it very common in: A. Baseball B. Softball C. Basketball D. Fishing E. All of these

E. All of these

Which of the following is NOT a component of a successful training program? A. Determine the new behaviors to be learned B. Break more complex new behavior down into smaller, logically arranged segments. C. Demonstrate desired behaviors to the trainee. D. Make reinforcement contingent on approximations of desired behavior. E. None of the above

E. None of the above