Chapter 5

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Developmental psychology

According to Piaget, during which stage of cognitive development do abstract logic and the potential for mature moral reasoning form? concrete operational preoperational sensorimotor formal operational

formal operational

According to Piaget, a person who can think logically about abstractions is in the ______________ ___________ stage

formal operations

Between ages 3 and 6, the human brain experiences the greatest growth in the __________ lobes, which enable rational planning and aid memory.

frontal

Freud defined the healthy adult as one who is able to love and work. Erikson agreed, observing that the adult struggles to attain intimacy and _______________.

generatively

What findings in psychology support (1) the stage theory of development and (2) the idea of stability in personality across the life span?

(1) Stage theory is supported by the work of Piaget (cognitive development), Kohlberg (moral development), and Erikson (psychosocial development). (2) Some traits, such as temperament, exhibit remarkable stability across many years.

Match the correct cognitive developmental stage (a-d) to each developmental phenomenon (1-6). a) sensorimotor b) preoperational c) concrete operational d) formal operational 1) Thinking about abstract concepts, such as "freedom." 2) Enjoying imaginary play (such as dress-up). 3) Understanding that physical properties stay the same even when objects change form. 4) Having the ability to reverse math operations. 5) Understanding that something is not gone for good when it disappears from sight, as when Mom "disappears" behind the shower curtain. 6) Having difficulty taking another's point of view (as when blocking someone's view of the TV).

1. d 2. b 3. c 4. c 5. a 6. b

Match the psychosocial development stage below (1-8) with the issue that Erikson believed we wrestle with at that stage (a-h) 1. Infancy 2. Toddlerhood 3. Preschool 4. Elementary School 5. Adolescence 6. Young Adulthood 7. Middle Adulthood 8. Late Adulthood a. Generativity vs Stagnation b. Integrity vs Despair c. Initiative vs Guilt d. Intimacy vs Isolation e. Identity vs Role Confusion f. Competence vs Inferiority g. Trust vs. Mistrust h. Autonomy vs Shame and doubt

1. g 2. h 3. c 4. f 5. e 6. d 7. a 8. b

How do parents-infant attachment bonds form?

About 8 months, soon after object permanence develops, children separated from their caregivers display stranger anxiety. Infant s form attachments with caregivers who gratify biological needs but, more importantly, why are comfortable, familiar, and responsive. Many birds and other animals have more rigid attachment process called imprinting, that occurs during a critical period

How have psychologist studied attachment differences and what have they learned?

Attachment has been studied in strange situation experiments, which show that some children are securely attached and others are insecurely (anxious or avoidantly) attached. Infants differing attachments styles reflect both their individual temperament and the responsiveness of their parents and child-care providers. Adults relationships seem to reflect the attachment styles of early childhood, landing support to Erik Erikson's idea that basic trust is formed in infancy by our experiences with responsive caregivers.

what distinguishes imprinting from attachments

Attachment is the normal process by which we from emotional ties with important others. Imprinting occurs only in certain animals the have a critical period very early in their development during which they mist form their attachments, and they do so in an inflexible manner

A disorder marked by social deficiencies and repetitive behaviors, with differing levels of severity

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

All of the following psychologists are considered stage theorists EXCEPT: B. F. Skinner. Jean Piaget. Erik Erikson. Lawrence Kohlberg.

B. F. Skinner

What are some newborn abilities, and how do researchers explore infants mental abilities?

Babies are born with sensory equipment and reflexes that facilitate their survival and their social; interactions with adults. For example, they quickly learn to discriminate their mothers smell, and they prefer the sound of human voices. Researchers use techniques that test habituation, such as the novelty-preference procedure, to explore infants abilities.

In a series of experiments, the Harlows found that monkeys raised with artificial mothers tended, when afraid, to cling to their cloth mother, rather than to a wire mother holding the feeding bottle. Why was this finding important?

Before these studies, many psychologists believed that infants simply became attached to those who nourished them.

Developmental researchers who emphasize learning and experience are supporting_______________; those who emphasize biological maturation are supporting __________________.

Continuity; Stages.

How do parents and peers influence adolescents?

During adolescence, parental influence diminishes and peer influence increases. Adolescents adopt their peers' ways of dressing, acting, and communicating. Parents have more influence in religion, politics, and college and career choices.

The period from age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many young people are not yet fully independent.

Emerging adulthood

What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence

Erik Erikson proposed eight stages of psychological development across the life span. He believed we need to achieve the following challenges: intimacy (in young childhood), generatively and integrity. Each life stage has its own psychosocial task. Sliding ones sense of self in adolescence means trying out a number of different roles. Social identity is the part of the self-concept that comes from a persons group memberships

From the perspectives of Piaget, Vygotksy, and todays researches, how does a Childs mind develop

In his theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget proposed that children actively contruct and modify their understanding of the world thorough the processes of assimilation and accommodation. They form schemas that help organize their experiences. Progressing from the simplicity of the sensorimotor stage of the first two years, in which they develop object permanence, children move to more complex ways of thinking. In the preoperational (about age 2 to about 6 or 7), they develop a theory of mind. Children are egocentric and unable to perform simple logical operations. By about age 7, they enter the concrete operational stage and are able to comprehend the principle of conservation By age 12, children enter the formal operational stage and can reason systematically. Research supports the sequence Piaget proposed, but it also shows that young children are more capable, and tower development more continuous, than he believed Lev Vygotsky's studies of child development focused on the wats a Childs mind grows by interacting with the social environment. In his view, parents and caretakers provide temporary scaffolds enabling children to step higher levels of thinking.

Use Piaget's first three stages of cognitive development to explain why young children are not just miniature adults in the way they think.

Infants in Piagets sensorimotor stage tend to be focused only on their own perceptions of the world and may, for example, be unaware that objects continue to exist when unseen. A child in the preoperational stage is till egocentric and is incapable of appreciating simple logic, such as the reversibility of operations. A preteen in the concrete operational stage is beginning to think logically about concrete events but not about abstract concepts

How has Kohlberg theory of moral reasoning been criticized

Kohlberg work reflected an individualist, so his theory is less culturally universal than he supposed

How does childhood neglect or abuse affect children's attachments?

Most children are resilient, but those who are severely neglected by their parents, or otherwise prevented from forming attachments at an early age, may be at risk for attachment problems. Extreme trauma in childhood may alter the brain, affecting our stress response or leaving epigenetic marks

What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood?

Muscular strength , reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac output begin almost imperceptibly decline in the mid-twenties; this downward trajectory accelerates through middle and late adulthood. Women's period of fertility ends with menopause around age 50; men experience a more gradual decline. In late adulthood, the immune system weakens, increasing susceptibility to life-threatening illnesses. Chromosome tips (telomeres) wear down, reducing the chances of normal genetic replication. But for some, longevity-supporting genes, low stress, and good health habits enable better health in later life

Three major issues of developmental psychology How does our genetic inheritance (our nature) interact with our experiences (our nurture) to influence our development? What parts of development are gradual and continuous, like riding an escalator? What parts change abruptly in separate stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder Which of our traits persist through life? How do we change as we age?

Nature and Nurture continuity and stages stability and change

How do neurocognitive disorders and Alzheimer's disease affect cognitive ability?

Neurocognitive disorders (NCDs) are acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits, which are related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. This damage to brain cells results in the erosion of mental abilities that is not typical of normal aging.

How does our well-being change across the life span?

Our self- confidence and sense of identity tend to strengthen across the life span. Survey show that life satisfaction is unrelated to age until the terminal decline phase. Positive emotions increase after midlife and negative ones decrease; with age come fewer extremes of emotion and mood.

A loved ones death triggers what range of reactions?

People do not grieve in predictable stages, as was once supposed. Strong expressions of emotion do not purge grief, and bereavement therapy is not significantly more effective than grieving without such aid. Life can be affirmed even at death, especially for those who experience what Erikson called a sense of integrity- a feeling that one's life has been meaningful

How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent and moral development

Piaget theorized that adolescents develop a capacity for formal operations and that this development is the foundation for moral judgment. Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of moral reasoning, form a preconventional morality of self-interest, to a conventional morality concerned with upholding laws and social rules, to (in some people) a post conventional morality of universal ethical principles. Other researchers believe that morality lies in moral intuition and moral action as well as thinking. Kohlberg's critics note that the postconventional level is culturally limited, representing morality only form the perspective of an individualist society

How does memory change with age

Recall begins to decline, especially for meaningless information. Recognition memory remains strong.

How do children's self-concepts develop?

Self-concept, an understanding and evaluation of who we are, emerges gradually. At 15 to 18 months, children recognize themselves in a mirror. By school age, they can describe many of their own traits, and by age 8 to 10 their self-image is stable.

The four parenting styles may be described as "too hard, too soft, too uncaring, and just right." Which parenting style goes with each of these descriptions, and how do children benefit from the "just right" style?

The authoritarian style would be described as too hard The permissive style too soft The negligent style too uncaring The authoritative style just right. Parents using the authoritative style tend to have children with Hugh self-esteem, self-reliance, self-regulation, and social competence

During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop?

The brains nerve cells are sculpted by hereditary and experience. As a Childs brain develops, neural connections grow more numerous and complex. Experiences then trigger a pruning process, in which unused connections weaken and heavily used ones strengthen. Early childhood is an important period for shaping the brain, but our brain modifies itself in response to our learning throughout life . In childhood, complex motor skills -sitting, standing, walking-develop in a predictable sequence, though timing of that sequence is a function of individual maturation and culture. We have few or no conscious memories of events occurring before about age 4. The infantile amnesia occurs in part because major brain area have not yet matured.

What is the course of prenatal development, and how do teratogens affect that development?

The life cycle begins at conception, when one sperm cell unites with an egg to form a zygote. The zygotes inner cells become the embryo, and the outer cells become the placenta. In the next 6 weeks, body organs begin to form and function, and by 9 weeks, the fetus is recognizably human. Teratogens are potentially harmful agents that can pass through the placenta and harm the developing embryo or fetus, as happens with fetal alcohol syndrome.

What are the four main parenting styles?

The main parenting styles are authoritarian (coercive), permissive (unrestraining), negligent (uninvolved), and authoritative (confrontative)

Stroke a newborn's cheek and the infant will root for a nipple. This illustrates a. a reflex b. nurture c. a preference d. continuity

a. a reflex

what is the theory of mind have to do with autism spectrum disorder?

Theory of mind focuses on our ability to understand our own and others mental states. Those with autism spectrum disorder struggle with this ability

In follow-up studies with children who demonstrated delayed gratification during preschool years, researchers found all of the following EXCEPT: the ability to delay gratification into later adulthood. a higher tendency to be impulsive and have addiction issues. higher college completion rates. higher status professions and higher incomes.

a higher tendency to be impulsive and have addiction issues.

Although Piaget's stage theory continues to inform our understanding of children's thinking, many researchers believe that a. Piagets stages begin earlier and development is more continuous than he realized b. children do not progress as rapidly as Piaget predicted c. few children progress to the concrete operational stage d. there is no way of testing much of Piagets theoretical work

a. Piagets stages begin earlier and development is more continuous than he realized

By age 65, a person would be most likely to experience a cognitive decline in the ability to a. recall and list all the important terms and concepts in a chapter b. elect the correct definition in a multiple-choice question c. recall their own birth date d. practice a well-learned skill, such as knitting

a. recall and list all the important terms and concepts in a chapter

How is adolescence defined, and how do physical changes affect developing teens?

adolescences is the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to social independence. Boy seem to benefit (though with risks) from early maturation, girls from late maturation. The brains frontal lobes mature and myelin growth increase during adolescence and the early 2os, enabling improved judgement, impulse control, and long term planning

What themes and influences mark our social journey from early adulthood to death?

adults do not progress through an orderly sequence of age-related social stages. Chance events can determine life choices. The social clock is a cultures preferred timing for events such as marriage, parenthood , and retirement. Adulthoods dominant themes are love and work (Erikson's intimacy and generatively)

Luca's parents set firm rules but they are responsive to his needs. They give him a chance to explain himself and also explain their position on why they cannot allow him to stay out past midnight, and so on. Luca's parents have which type of parenting style? authoritative authoritarian detached permissive

authoritative

what outcomes are associated with each parenting style?

authoritative- greater self esteem, self-reliance, self-regulation, and social competence authoritarian- lower self esteem, less social skills, and brain that overreacts to mistakes permissive- greater aggression and immaturity negligent- poor academic and social outcomes However, correlation does not equal causation (its possible that children with positive characteristics are more likely to bring out positive parenting methods)

In Eriksons stages, the primary task during adolescence is a. attaining formal operations b. forgiving an identity c. developing a sense of intimacy with another person d. living independent of parents

b. forgiving an identity

Adolescence is marked by the onset of a. an identity crisis b. puberty c. separation anxiety d. parent-child conflict

b. puberty

Although development is lifelong, there is stability of personality over time. For example, a. most personality emerge in infancy and persist throughout life. b. temperament tend to remain stable throughout life c. few people change significantly after adolescence d. people tend to undergo greater personality changes as they age

b. temperament tend to remain stable throughout life

which of the following is true of motor-skill development? a. it is determined solely by genetic factors b. the sequence, but not the timing, is universal c. the timing, nut not the sequence, is universal d. it is the determined solely by environmental factors

b. the sequence, but not the timing, is universal

Contrary to what many people assume, a. older pope are significantly less happy than adolescents b. we become less happy as we move from our teen years to midlife c. positive feelings tend to grow after midlife d. those whose children have recently left home-the empty nesters-have the lowest level of happiness of all groups

c. positive feelings tend to grow after midlife

Stage theories we will consider— Jean Piaget Lawrence Kohlberg Erik Erikson

cognitive development moral development psychosocial development—propose developmental stages

The three major issues that interest developmental psychologists are nature/nurture, stability/change, and _________/_________.

continuity/stages

How do cross-sectional and longitudinal studies differ?

cross-sectional studies compare people of different ages at one point in time. longitudinal studies restudy and retest the same people over a long period of time

What are some of the most significant challenges and rewards of growing old

decline of muscular strength reaction times stamina sensory keenness cardiac output immune system functioning risk of cognitive decline increases Rewards: positive feelings tend to grow negative emotions are less intense anger, stress, worry, and social relationship problems decrease

Body organs first begin to form and function during the period of the _______; within 6 months, during the period of the _______, the organs are sufficiently functional to allow a good chance of survival.

embryo; fetus

Some developmental psychologists now refer to the period that occurs in some Western cultures from age 18 to the mid-twenties and beyond (up to the time of full adult independence) as _______ _____.

emerging adulthood

infants' __________ to repeated stimulation helps development psychologist study what they can learn and remember.

habituation

A researcher who administers a personality test to the same children every three years is conducting a(n) _____________ study. chronological crosssectional longitudinal experimental

longitudinal

Frued defined the healthy adult as one who is able to ____ and to _____

love; work

The biological growth process, called ______________, explains why most children begin walking by about 12 to 15 months

maturation

What three issues have engaged developmental psychologists?

nature and nurture continuity and stages stability and change

object permanence, pretend play, conservation, and attract logic are developmental milestones for which of Piagets stages, respectively?

object permanence for the sensorimotor stage pretend play for the preoperational stage conservation for the concrete operational stage abstract logic for the formal operational stage

Those who emphasize biological maturation tend to see development as a sequence of

of genetically predisposed stages or step

As evidence of the stability of temperament over time, a study conducted by Hertenstein et al. (2009) found from studying college photographs that: one in four of those people with the weakest college smiles tended to divorce. those people with weaker smiles tended to have longer marriages. those people with the widest smiles tended to have shorter marriages. one in three of those people with the widest college smiles tended to divorce.

one in four of those people with the weakest college smiles tended to divorce.

According to Kohlberg, those who develop an abstract level of reasoning, wherein they perceive basic ethical principles and the moral good as more important than their own self, have developed what is known as: preconventionalmorality .pseudomorality. conventionalmorality. postconventional morality.

post conventional morality

According to Kohlberg__________morality focuses on self-interest, ____________ morality focuses on self-defined ethical principles, and __________ morality focuses on upholding laws and social rules

preconventional; post conventional; conventional

Seventy-six-year-old Harry has an optimistic outlook on life, plays golf several times a week, and teaches English to non-English-speaking people. These activities and attitude demonstrate the role _____ factors play in helping older people live longer and flourish. biological psychological social cultural

psychological

John is 58 years old and he is worried about loss of both memory and cognitive abilities. He asks you what he can do to prevent the loss of these abilities. You give him all of the following suggestions EXCEPT: maintain a healthy weight. reduce your activity level. keep your mind active. stay physically active.

reduce your activity level.

According to Piaget, until about 8 months of age, infants lack a(n): capacity for abstract reasoning. concept of conservation. theory of mind. sense of object permanence.

sense of object permanence.

Studies show that if a girl develops physically ahead of her emotional maturity, this combination can cause the girl to be prone to: borderline personality disorder. autism spectrum disorder. severe anxiety. schizophrenia.

severe anxiety.

Researchers who emphasize experience and learning typically see development as a

slow, continuous shaping process

An 8-month-old infant who reacts to a new babysitter by crying and clinging to his father's shoulder is showing ______________ _______________.

stranger anxiety

chemicals that the placenta isn't able to screen out that can harm an embryo or fetus are called___________.

teratogens

Based on research into the responses of infants immediately after they are born, we can be MOST certain that the human fetus is aware of and learns to recognize: the mother's fears and anxieties the sound of the mother singing the mother's feelings of happiness or elation. novel visual stimuli.

the sound of the mother singing

Why can't we consciously recall how we learned to walk when we were infants?

we consciously recall little from before age 4, in part because major brain areas have not yet matured

The first two weeks of prenatal development id the period of the _________. The period of the ____________ lasts from 9 weeks after conception until birth. The time between those two prenatal periods is considered the period of the ___________.

zygote; fetus; embryo