Chapter 5 Adaptations to Anaerobic Training Programs

Rate Pressure Product (RPP)

The mathematical product of heart rate x systolic blood pressure. Also called the double product

Mature tendons and ligaments contain relavitively

few cells. *The small number of active cells make the requirements for oxygen and nutrients relatively low.

STRESS FRACTURE

microfractures in bone due to structural fatigue

Successful training must not only involve ___ but must also avoid the combination of excessive ___ with ____ ____.

overload overload inadequate recovery

Table 5.2 pg 90 Physiological adaptations in body composition from resistance training

% body fat: decreases fat-free mass: increases

Muscular adaptations in response to anaerobic training

increases in size, fiber type transitions and enhanced biochemical and ultrastructural components (i.e. muscle architecture, enzyme activity and substrate concentrations). These collectively enhance strength, power and muscular endurance.

Structural changes associated with EIMD (exercise-induced muscle damage)

influence gene expression in an effort to strengthen muscle tissue and protect it from further damage.

Anaerobic training

High-intensity, intermittent bouts of exercise such as weight training; plyometric drills; and speed, agility, and interval training. Requires ATP to be regenerated at a faster rate than the aerobic energy system is capable of.

The components of mechanical load that stimulate bone growth are

1. magnitude of the load (intensity) 2. rate (speed) of loading 3. direction of the forces 4. volume of loading (number of repetitions)

Neuromuscular reflex potentiation

Anaerobic training may enhance the reflex response (i.e. muscle spindle or stretch reflex) of the neuromuscular system (mystatic reflex), thereby enhancing the magnitude and rate of force development.

Any increase in muscle strength or mass may result in corresponding increase in

BONE MINERAL DENSITY (BMD). -the quantity of mineral deposited in a given area of the bone. -inactivity or immobilization has the opposite effect and results in a more rapid rate of loss of bone matrix and BMD. -bone adaptations take 6 month or more and depends intimately on the structure of the program. However, elevation in osetogenic markers in the blood can be recognized within the first few workouts.

Chronic changes in resting hormonal concentrations

Consistent chronic changes in resting hormonal concentrations are less likely. chronic elevation may be detrimental because hormone receptors tend to downregulate over time.

ligaments contain___________, a protein that allows them to be stretched.

ELASTIN

Movement in joint is related to joint health.

Movement in a joint creates changes in pressure in the joint capsule that drive nutrients from the synovial fluid toward the articular cartilage of the joint. **Immobilization prevents proper diffusion of O2 and essential nurtients > resulting in death of the healthy cells within cartilage (chondrocytes) and resorption of the cartilage matrix. A kind of atrophy or thinning.

The onset of hypertrophy is associated with a decline in EMG activity

It appears that as an individual's training status advances there exists an interplay between neural and hypertrophic mechanisms that contribute to further gains in strength and power.

Overtraining Continuum (p. 108)

Overload stimulus ---> Acute fatigue (days) --->functional Overreaching (days to weeks)---> nonfunctional overreaching (weeks to months)--->overtraining syndrome (months or more)

Some examples of Benefits of Anaerobic Exercise

improvements in muscular strength, power, hypertrophy, muscular endurance, motor skills and coordination.

Hypertrophy

enlargement of muscle fiber cross-sectional area following training

Compatibility of Aerobic and Anaerobic Modes of Training

**combining resistance and aerobic endurance training may interfere with strength and power gains, primarily if the aerobic endurance training is high in intensity, volume or frequency. **research shows heavy resistance training has very limited if any negative effects on aerobic power but instead can serve to enhance performance in endurance sports. **heavy resistance training recruits more of type IIx fibers than high-intensity aerobic endurance interval training.

Heavy resistance training has been shown to

- decreasing mitochondrial density. Cross section area of muscle increases faster than mitochondrial proliferation. -decreased capillary density by similar mechanisms. But overall number of capillaries per muscle fiber increase somewhat.

Anaerobic system

-ATP system that works in the absence of oxygen -includes anaerobic alactic system (phosphagen or creatine phosphate system) -includes anaerobic lactic system (glycolytic system)

Chronic cardiovascular adaptations at rest from anaerobic exercise

-Anaerobic training leads to decreases or no change in resting HR and BP. -RPP remains constant or decreases -Stroke volume increases in absolute magnitude but not relative to body surface area or lean body mass -does little to increase resting cardiac function -Resistance training alters cardiac dimensions. *increased left ventricular wall thickness and mass, but increase disappears when compared to relative body surface area or lean body mass. -little to no increase in left ventricular chamber size or volume (major difference between anaerobic and aerobic exercise)

Mechanical deformation of muscle stimulates various proteins independent of hormone concentrations.. one is Akt/mTOR pathway.

-It is particularly important because when muscles contract Akt/mTOR signaling increases dramatically, this response is critical for increasing muscle protein synthesis and subsequent growth a process called MYOGENSIS. Mechanical deformation of muscle also causes... -downregulation of inhibitory growth factors (e.g. myostatin) suggests that resistance exercise significantly affects a plethora of growth-signaling and breakdown pathways. -protein synthesis rates are elevated after acute wt training and stay up for up to 48 hours -the magnitude of increased protein synthesis depends on a variety of factors including -CHO and protein intake -amino acid availability -timing of nutrient intake -mechanical stress of the wt training work out -muscle cell hydratiohn levels -anabolic hormonal and subsequent receptor response

Table 5.2 pg 90 Physiological Adaptations in performance from resistance training

-Muscular strength: increases -muscular endurance: increases for high power output -aerobic power: no change or increases slightly -anaerobic power: increases -rate of force production: increases -vertical jump: improved ability -sprint speed: improves

Table 5.2 pg 90 Physiological adaptations in enzyme activity from resistance training

-creatine phosphokinase: increases -myokinase: increases -phosphofructokinase: increases -lactate dehydrogenase: no change or variable -sodium-potassium ATPase: increases

myotatic reflex (stretch reflex)

-The stretch reflex (myotatic reflex) is a muscle contraction in response to stretching within the muscle. It is a monosynaptic reflex which provides automatic regulation of skeletal muscle length. When a muscle lengthens, the muscle spindle is stretched and its nerve activity increases. -it harnesses the involuntary elastic properties of the muscle and connective tissue and acts to positively increase force production without any additional energy requirements

How can athletes stimulate bone formation?

-Use exercises that directly load particular regions of the skeleton. Multi-joint exercises that use many muscle groups. Avoid isolated, single-joint movements -Use structural exercises to direct force vectors through the spine and hip and allow the use of greater absolute loads in training. -Overload the musculoskeletal system and progressively increase the load as the tissues become accustomed to the stimulus. -Use both heavy-load exercises and ballistic or high-impact exercises to expose the bone to different intensities of force. -Vary exercise selection to change the distribution of the force vectors to continually present a unique stimulus.

Electromyography (EMG)

-a common research tool used to examine the magnitude of neural activation within skeletal muscle -2 kinds are used in research 1. surface EMG requires placement of adhesive electrodes on the surface of the skin where they monitor a large area of underlying muscle (but can't detect deeper muscle and a lot of fat can reduce signal detection) 2. intramuscular EMG, a need electrode inserts 2 electrodes into the muscle belly itself. It accurately records localized motor unit action potentials. Invasive.

Specific changes within a tendon that contribute to its increase in size and strength include

-an increase in collagen fibril diameter -a greater number of covalent cross-links within the hypertrophied fiber -an increase in the number of collagen fibrils -an increase in the packing density of collagen fibrils **collectively these adaptations make tendons stronger

Performance improvements in flexibility following anaerobic exercise (p. 106 table)

-anaerobic training potentially can have a positive effect on flexibility and a combination of resistance training and stretching appears to be the most effective method to improve flexibility with increasing muscle mass.

Exercises recommended for increasing bone strenth

-back squat -power clean -deadlift -snatch -push jerk *these for axial skeleton and lower body -shoulder press (for upper body)

Connective tissue includes

-bone -tendon -ligaments -fascia -cartilage

Performance improvements in local muscular endurance following anaerobic exercise (p. 106 table)

-cross sectional data in anaerobic athletes have shown enhanced muscular endurance and subsequent muscular adaptations consistent with improved oxidative and buffering capacity -skeletal muscle adaptations to anerobic muscular endurance training include fiber type transitions from Type IIx to Type IIB as well as increases in mitochondrial and capillary numbers, buffering capacity, resistance to fatigue and metabolic enzyme activity

Table 5.2 pg 90 Physiological adaptations in muscle fibers from resistance training

-fiber cross-sectional area: increases -capillary density: no change or decreases -mitochondrial density: decreases -myofibrillar density: no change -myofibrillar volume: increases -cytoplasmic density: increases -myosin heavy chain protein: increases

Motor unit adaptations of changes in rate and sequence of firing....

-high firing rates from the onset of ballistic muscle contraction are especially critical to increased rates of force development. -the increase in firing rate seems to be dependent on muscle size < smaller muscles rely more on an increased firing rate to enhance force production and larger muscles more on recruitment.

Performance improvements in aerobic capacity following anaerobic exercise (p. 106 table)

-in untrained people, heavy resistance training can increase VO2max from 5-8%. In trained individuals resistance training does not significantly affect aerobic capacity. -circuit training and programs using high volume and short rest periods (30 sec or less) have been shown to improve VO2max

Performance improvements in body composition following anaerobic exercise (p. 106 table)

-increase fat-free mass and reduce body fat by up to 9% -increases in lean tissue mass, daily metabolic rate and energy expenditure during exercise are outcomes of resistance training

The process of hypertrophy involves:

-increase in the net accretion (i.e. increase in synthesis, reduction and degradation or both) of the contractile protein actin and myosin within the myofibril -increase in the number of myofibrils within a muscle fiber -titin and nebulin are also synthesized proportionately to the myofilament changes. The new myfilaments are added to the periphery of the myofibril increasing the muscle diameter -gene expression is affected resulting in increased protein synthesis

Overall the magnitude of the acute cardiovascular responses depends on...

-intensity and volume of exercise -muscle mass involvement -rest period length -contraction velocity

Anaerobic lactic system (glycolytic system)

-longer-duration interval-type anaerobic training -shorter rest periods

Performance improvements in muscular strength following anaerobic exercise (p. 106 table)

-mean strength can increase -about 40% in untrained -20% in moderately trained -16% in trained -10% in advanced -2% in elite over periods ranging from 4 wks to 2 years. -with training a positive shift in muscle fiber types reflects an augmented recruitment of higher-order motor units. Type IIx fibers transition to type IIa fibers and reflect a greater fatigue resistance at similar absolute force output.

Central neural adaptations to anaerobic exercise

-new exercise skill learned or force developed rises > primary motor cortex activity is elevated to support enhanced need for neuromuscular function. > changed then reflected by substantial neural changes in the spinal cord along **research has shown that only 71% of muscle tissue is acctivated during maximal efforts in untrained populations

Performance improvements in power following anaerobic exercise (p. 106 table)

-optimal load for maximizing absolute peak power output in the jump squat is 0% of 1RM (i.e., body weight). However, it has been reported that peak power output is maximized in trained power athletes with higher loads corresponding to 30-60% of squat 1RM -peak power in the squat is maximized at 56% of 1 RM and in the power clean at 80% of 1RM -for the upper body, peak power output can be maximized during the ballistic bench press throw using loads corresponding to 46-62% of 1RM bench press

Chronic adaptations of the acute cardiovascular response to anaerobic exercise

-reduces the cardiovascular response to an acute bout of resistance exercise of a given absolute intensity or workload *it blunts increases in heart rate, blood pressure and double product (RPP which is heart rate x systolic BP) caused by the resistance training workout *male bodybuilders have shown lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure and heart rated during sets of 50-100% of 1RM compared to sedentary and lesser-trained men. *could increase cardiac output and decrease myocardial oxygen consumption in bodybuilders vrs power lifters -oxygen extraction is not improved

Collagen

-striated appearance -as bone grows microfibrils become arranges into fibers, fibers into larger bundles. -it's true strength is from the strong chemical bonds (CROSS-LINKING) that form between adjacent collagen molecules through the collagen bundles. -bundles are bunched together longitudinally to form tendons or ligaments -bundles are also arranged in sheets with layers orientated in different directions as found in bone, carilage and fascia.

Endocrine responses and adaptations to anaerobic training

-the acute anabolic hormone response to anaerobic exercise is critical for exercise performance and susequent training adaptations. Upregulation of anabolic hormone receptors is important for mediating the hormonal effects.

The sties where connective tissues can increase strength and load-bearing capacity are

-the junctions between the tendon (and ligament) and bone surface -within the body of the tendon or ligament -in the network of fascia within skeletal muscle

Anaerobic alactic system (phosphagen system) exercises

-usually less than 10 sec in duration and minimize fatigue by allowing almost complete recovery between sets -i.e. sprints and plyometric drills

Other EMG studies have found in regards to neural adaptations...

1. Exercising muscle undergoing unilateral resistance training produces increased strength and neural activity in the contralateral resting muscle known as CROSS-EDUCATION. Suggesting a central neural adaptation accounts for the majority of strength gains. 2. in untrained individuals a BILATERAL DEFICIT is evident. The force produced when both limbs contract together is lower than the sum of the forces they produce when contracting unilaterally. With longitudinal bilateral training, the magnitude of bilateral deficit is reduced. In fact, trained or stronger individuals often show a BILATERAL FACILITATION effect in which an increase in voluntary activation of the agonist muscle groups occurs. 3. reduced antagonist co-contraction following resistance training, resulting in an increase in net force without an increase in agonist motor unit recruitment.

Markers of anaerobic overtraining *user performance decrements as markers to see of OTS is evident. consider following criteria p. 109

1. Is the athlete experiencing any of the following symptoms? -unexplained underperformance -persistent fatigue -increased sense of effort during training -disordered sleep patterns -loss of appetite 2. Are the athlete's scores in maximal exercise tests, sport-specific performance tests, or vital signs assessments (HR, BP) poorer than on previous tests or what would be considered normal or baseline? 3. Are there errors in the design of the athlete's training program? -training volume increased significantly (<5%) -training intensity increased significantly -training monotony present -high number or frequency of competitions 4. Are there other confounding factors? -psychological signs and symptoms (disturbed profile of mood states {POMS}, higher than normal RPE -social factors (family, relationships, finances, work, coach, team) -recent or multiple time zone travel 5. Does the athlete have common exclusion criteria? -confounding illnesses -anemia -infectious diseases -muscle damage (high creatine kinase levels) -endocrine disorders (DM, catecholamines, adrenal, thyroid) -major eating disorders -biological abnormalities (c-reactive protein, creatinine, decreased ferritin) -musculoskeletal injury -cardiologic symptoms -adult-onset asthma -allergies

Gains in maximal strength and power of agonist muscles are generally associated with... (4)

1. an increase in recruitment 2. an increased rate of firing 3. greater synchronization of neural discharge which acts to coordinate the activity of multiple muscles in synergy 4. or a combination of all these factors

Resistance training has been shown to increase

1. myofibrillar volume 2. cytoplasmic density 3. sarcoplasmic reticulum and T-tubule density 4. sodium-potassium ATPase activity. Collectively these changes act to facilitate hypertrophy and enable greater expression of muscular strength.

Anaerobic training programs that have the objective to stimulate bone growth need to incorporate

1. specificity of loading 2. speed and direction of loading 3. volume 4. appropriate exercise selection 5. progressive overload 6. variation

The degree to which blood flow is increased in working muscles during anaerobic training is dependent on

1. the intensity of resistance 2. the length of time of the effort (i.e. number of reps) 3. the size of muscle mass activated.

The sequence of protein synthesis involves

1. water uptake 2. noncontractile protein synthesis 3. contractile protein synthesis 4. reduced degradation acts to maintain the size of fibers by reducing net protein loss.

PARASYMPATHETIC OVERTRAINING SYNDROME

A form of overtraining that involves increased parasympathetic activity at rest and with exercise. **aerobic-endurance exercise

Stages of overtraining

Acute fatigue -days -no effect or INCREASE in performance -altered neuron function Functional overreaching (FOR) -days to weeks -TEMPORARY decrease in performance, returns to baseline -altered motor unit recruitment -altered sympathetic activity and hypothalamic control Nonfunctional Overreaching (NFOR) -weeks to months -performance STAGNATION or decrease -decreased motor coordination -altered excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscle -decreased muscle glycogen -increased resting HR and BP -altered immune function -altered hormonal concentrations -mood disturbances Overtraining syndrome (OTS) -many months to years -performance DECREASE -decreased force production in skeletal muscle -sickness and infection -emotional and sleep disturbances

OSTEOBLASTS

Bone building cells -manufacture and secrete proteins (primarily collagen molecules) that are deposited in the spaces between bone cells to increase strength. -these proteins form the BONE MATRIX and eventually become mineralized as calcium phosphate crystals (HYDROXYAPATITE).

Sprint training enhances ____ release

Calcium which assists in increasing speed and power production by promoting actin and myosin crossbridge formation.

Overtraining syndrome (OTS)

Excessive frequency, volume, or intensity of training, resulting in fatigue; also caused by a lack of proper rest and recovery. -Central to the definition is prolonged maladapation not only of the athlete but also several biological, neurochemical and hormonal regulation mechanisms. -recovery can last as long as 6 months or beyond and can even ruin an athletes career. 2 types of OTS 1. sympathetic overtraining syndrome 2. parasympathetic overtraining syndrome

Muscle fibers are positioned on a continuum from least oxidative to most oxidative

IIx >> IIax >> IIa > IIac > IIc > Ic ? I with a concomitant myosin heavy chain (MHC) expression

Cartilage is a dense connective tissue capable of withstanding considerable force without damage to its structure.

Main functions are: -provide a smooth joint articulating surface -act as a shock absorber for forces directed through the join -aid in the attachment of connective tissue to the skeleton

Another critical element of adaptation in neural recruitment is the level of tissue activation that results from chronic resistance training for muscular hypertrophy.

Research has shown that as muscle size increases it does not require as much neural activation to lift a given load.

Performance improvements in motor performance following anaerobic exercise (p. 106 table)

Resistance training has been shown to increase running economy, vertical jump, sprint speed, tennis serve velocity, swinging and throwing velocity and kicking performance.

How can athletes stimulate connective tissue adaptations?

Tendons, ligaments, fascia -progressive high-intensity loading patterns using external resistances -forces should be exerted throughout the full range of motion of a joint and where ever possible multiple-joint exercises should be used. Cartilage -moderate-intensity anaerobic exercise seems to be adequate for increasing cartilage thickness. Strenuous exercise doesn't appear to cause any degenerative joint disease when progressively overloaded appropriately -tissue viability can be maintained by adopting a variety of exercise modalities and ensuring that load is applied throughout the range of motion.

The process of hypertrophy involves both an increase in the synthesis of the contractile proteins actin and myosin within the myofibril and an increase in the number of myofibrils withing the muscle fiber itself.

The new myofilaments are added to the external layers of the myofibril, resulting in an increase in its diameter.

2. When one is performing a box-to-box plyometric drop jump, in order to generate sufficient force in a limited amount of time (<200 ms), which muscle fibers are bypassed through the principle of selective recruitment? a. I b. IIa c. IIx d. IIc

a. Type I

Ventilatory response to anaerobic exercise

Ventilation generally does not limit resistance exercise and is either unaffected or only moderately improved by anaerobic training. -increased tidal volume and breathing frequency with maximal exercise -submaximal exercise breathing frequency is often reduced while tidal volume is increased. *these result from local, neural or chemical adaptations in specific muscles trained through exercise -improved ventilation efficiency as characterized by reduced VENTILATORY EQUIVALENT for oxygen (the ratio of air ventilated to oxygen used by the tissues, Ve/VO2)

overtraining

a condition whereby too much training results in the maladaptations of body responses. -recovery can take several weeks or months

Osteoporosis

a disease in which bone mineral density (BMD) and bone mass become reduced to critically low levels.

sympathetic overtraining syndrome

a form of overtraining that includes increased sympathetic activity at rest **anaerobic acitivies

1. Following resistance training, augmented neural drive to the working musculature is the result of I. increased agonist muscle recruitment II. muscle hypertrophy III.improved firing rate IV. greater synchronization a. all of the above b. I and IV only c. I, II, and III only d. I, III, and IV only

a. all of the above

pennation angle

affects the force production capabilities as well as the range of motion of a muscle

Selective recruitment of motor units

allow an athlete to inhibit lower-threshold motor units and in their place activate the higher threshold motor units critical to optimal speed and power performance

As muscles become stronger they pull harder on their bony attachment

and cause an increase in bone mass at the tendon-bone junction and along the line over which the forces are distributed.

Adaptations to neuromuscular junction in response to resistance training (NMJ)

appears to induce beneficial morphological changes in the NMJ that are conducive to enhanced neural transmission capabilities.

In order to optimize muscle growth

appropriate training periodization is essential for maximizing the combination of mechanical and metabolic stimuli. Mechanical factors include -the lifting of heavy loads -inclusion of eccentric muscle actions -moderate to high training volumes **result in optimal recruitment of muscle fibers (fibers need to be recruited before growth), growth factor expression and potential disruption of the sarcomeres, all of which increase muscle. Metabolic factors center on -low to moderate intensity or moderately high intensity training with high volumes and short rest periods. **metabolic factors stress the glycolytic energy system and result in increased metabolites that may be involved in muscle growth and illicit the most potent anabolic hormone response.

As with initial gains in performance variables (e.g. strength and power) hypertrophic responses

are at their greatest in the early stages of training after which the rate of muscle growth diminishes over time.

With anaerobic training, ATP AND CREATINE PHOSPHATE (CP) concentrations

are repeatedly exhausted with intermittent high-intensity muscular contraction. The storage capacity of these high-energy compounds is increased via a "SUPERCOMPENSATION" effect. Similarly bodybuilding-style programs stress anaerobic glycolysis and may be a potent stimulator for enhancement of GLYCOGEN content.

4. Following prolonged periods of detraining in elite strength/power athletes, which of the following physical characteristics will likely show the largest reduction as a consequence of the removal of an anaerobic training stimulus? a. total fat mass b. fast-twitch fiber cross-sectional area c. slow-twitch fiber cross-sectional area d. total Type I muscle fiber content

b. fast-twitch fiber cross-sectional area

With heavy resistance training, all muscle fibers get larger because

because motor units are recruited in a sequential order by their size to produce high levels of force. In advanced lifters, the CNS system may adapt by allowing well-trained athletes to recruit some motor units in a nonconsecutive order, by recruiting larger ones 1st to promote greater production of power or speed in a movement.

Forces on the skeleton by anerobic exercise can be

bending compressive torsional It is called MECHANICAL LOADING.

5. Following a period of chronic high-intensity resistance training, a variety of physiological adaptations take place in a number of systems withing the body that promote improved athletic performance in strength/power activities. If an elite athlete were to undergo 12 weeks of heavy strength training, which of the following adaptations would NOT be expected consequent to this type of anaerobic exercise? a. a transition from Type IIx to Type IIa muscle fiber b. increased pennation angle in certain muscle groups c. reduced sarcoplasmic reticulum and t-tubule density d. elevated sodium-potassium ATPase activity

c. reduced sarcoplasmic reticulum and t-tubule density

3. Which of the following performance or physiological characteristics is NOT usually observed in a state of nonfunctional overreaching (NFOR) within athlete populations a. stagnation and a decrease in performance b. hormonal disturbances c. sleep disturbances d. increased levels of fatigue

c. sleep disturbances

An acute bout of anaerobic exercise significantly increases... cardiac output, stroke volume, heart rate, oxygen uptake, systolic blood pressure and blood flow to active muscles.

cardiovascular responses -heart rate -stroke volume -cardiac output -blood pressure -intrathoracic pressure increases -plasma volume reduces up to 22%

Although proportions of Type I and Ix fibers are genetically determined

changes within each subtype can occur following anerobic training.

adaptations of motor units (functional unit of the neuromuscular system - neuromuscular junction and the motor neuron)

consists of the alpha motor neuron and the muscle fibers that it activates -increased force with greater firing rates reflects the summation of successive muscle contractions, whereby action potentials temporarily overlap. -with increased motor unit firing rates, the muscle fibers are continually activated by subsequent action potentials before they have time to completely relax following a prior action potential .>the summation of overlapping action potentials is expressed as augmented contractile strength

6. In which of the following athletes might you expect limited bone mineral density (BMD) levels as a consequence of the force vectors and the physical demands associated with the given sport? a. a 16 y.o. gymnast with a seven-year training history in her sport b. a 23 y.o. offensive lineman who has lifted weights for 8 yrs c. a 33 y.o. track cyclist who has a 2 RM squat of 352 pounds d. a 19 y.o. 800 freestyle swimmer with one year of dryland training

d. a 19 y.o. 800 freestyle swimmer with one year of dryland training

hormonal markers of anaerobic overtraining

decrease resting concentration of testosterone and IGF have been observed but in response to resistance training.but increases acute testosterone response; volume related overtraining increases cortisol and free testosterone; intensity related overtraining doesn't alter resting concentrations

DETRAINING

decrement in performance and loss of accumulated physiological adaptations following the cessation of anaerobic training or when there is a substantial reduction in frequency, volume, intensity, or any combination of these variables.

specificity of loading

demands the use of exercises that directly load the particular region of interest of the skeleton

Longitudinal monitoring of athletes has been the most practical way of

documenting the physiological responses and performance effects of overtraining.

During a set of resistance exercise stroke volume and cardiac output increase mostly during the _____ of each repetition.

eccentric *especially when the valsalva technique is used. **it doesn't increase during concentric phase because it is much more difficult, creating elevations in intrathoracic and intra-abdmoinal pressures > limiting venous return and reducing end-diastolic volume > cardiac output increases during eccentric phase (rest phase) **because of this HR is higher during the first 5 seconds after completion of set (higher than during the actual exercise)

OSTEOGENIC STIMULI

factors that stimulate new bone formation **exercises should involve multiple joint , should direct the force vectors primarily through the spine and hip (structural exercises), and should apply external loads heavier than those with single-joint assistance exercises -STRUCTURAL EXERCISES - exercises which are multi-joint in nature and typically involve several different muscles. -The use of single-joint machine-based exercises should be limited.

The fibrous connective tissues that surround and separate the different organizational levels within skeletal muscle are referred to as

fascia -has sheets of fibrocollagenous support tissue, containing bundles of collagen fibers arranged in different planes, to provide resistance to forces from different directions. -Fascia within muscles converges near the end of the muscle to form a tendon through which muscle force is transmitted to the bone. -low blood flow and don't increase blood flow with exercise like muscle > decreased vascularity = slow healing time

The parent protein, PROCOLLAGEN, is synthesized and secreted by

fibroblasts, which are the most common cells found in the connective tissue of animals. -act as stem cells in the synthesis of the extracellular matrix -assist in wound healing

tendon stiffness

force transmission per unit of strain, or tendon elongation -increases as a result of resistance training. Must be heavy loads (80% 1 RM)

resistance training has been shown to

increase the angle of pennation. Larger pennation angle = greater protein deposition and allow for greater increases in CSA (cross sectional area).

2 types of cartilage

hyaline and fibrous cartilage. HYALINE - articular cartilage that is found on the articulating surfaces of bones. FIBROUS CARTILAGE - very tough form of cartilage found in the intervertebral disks of the spine and at the junctions where tendons attach to bone.

reactive hyperemia

if blood supply cut off (during muscle contraction) then restored (muscle relaxation), flow increases above normal, such as doing resistance training greater than 20% of maximal voluntary contraction. *this process increases metabolites like hydrogen ions and reduction in pH and is a potent stimulus for muscle growth.

Hyperplasia of muscle fibers

increase in number of muscle fibers from spitting of muscle fibers as a result of resistance training. Seen in animals but not proved in humans.

A pennate or pinnate muscle (also called a penniform muscle)

is a muscle with FASCICLES that attach obliquely (in a slanting position) to its tendon.

Compact bone

is called CORTICAL BONE. -dense -forma a compact outer shell surround the trabecular bone

spongy bone tissue

is called TRABECULAR BONE. -spaces between the trabecular plates that connect trabecular bone to cortical bone are occupied by bone marrow that consist of adipose tissue and blood products like immature red blood cells. -softer, weaker and more flexible than cortical bone, therefore more inclined to adaptive change.

The inegration of high-intensity exercise with short rest periods

is considered an important aspect of anaerobic training as athletes are often required to perform near-maximally under fatigued conditions during competition.

Because rebounds are possible

it is difficult to determine when overtraining becomes chronic. -some athletes respond positively to overreaching strategies while others, overreaching can be the catalyst for OTS.

Cartilage lacks what?

it's own blood supply and must depend on diffusion of oxygen and nutrients from synovial fluid (which is why cartilage does not easily repair itself following injury).

Table 5.2 pg 90 Physiological adaptations in connective tissue from resistance training

ligament strength: may increase tendon strength: may increase collagen content: may increase bone density: no change or increases

Any change in the muscle fiber type continuum and associated MHCs

occurs in the early stages of a resistance training program.

new bone formation occurs

on the outer surface of the bone (PERIOSTEUM). Increasing diameter and strength.

Neural adaptations to anaerobic training essential to

optimizing athletic performance and increased neural drive is critical to maximizing the expression of muscular strength and power

ELASTIN

protein base similar to collagen that forms elastic tissue

The combination of resistance, sprint and jump training has been shown to increase

rectus femoris fascicle length

MINIMAL ESSENTIAL STRAIN (MES)

refers to the threshold stimulus that initiates new bone formation *consistently exceeding these thresholds allows osteoblasts to migrate to the area of stress to form new bone.

Anaerobic types of exercise

resistance training, plyometric drills, speed & agility, interval training

Table 5.2 pg 90 Physiological adaptations in metabolic energy stores from resistance training

stored ATP: increases stored creatine phosphate: increases stored glycogen: increases stored triglycerides: may increase

Fascicle length of pennate muscle has been shown to be greater in

strength-trained athletes. And fascicle length of gastrocnemius and vastus lateralis has been found to be greater in sprinters vrs distance runners.

Anaerobic exercise results in

substantial reductions in muscle and blood pH, with several mechanisms regulating a change in acid-base balance during exercise. With adaptations to consistent acute changes in pH during training (i.e., increased H+ concentration) buffering capacity can improve. This increased capacity then allows an athlete to better tolerate the accumulation of H+ within the working muscle, resulting in delayed fatigue and greater muscular endurance. High-intensity interval training (sprints, cycling) performed above the lactate threshold has been shown to significantly increase buffering capacity by 16-38%. Anaerobic sport athletes have been shown to have higher buffering capacity than endurance athletes and untrained control subjects.

Type IIx fibers represent a "reservoir"

that up on consistent activation, changes into a more oxidative form along the continuum (i.e. to an intermediate fiber type IIax and thn to a IIa)

The primary structural component of all connective tissue is

the collagen fiber. -Type I for bone, tendon and ligaments -Type II for cartilage

Strain registered by bone is a function of

the force per unit area of bone (stress). *MES is thought to be 1/10 of the force required to fracture bone. -increasing the diameter of bone allows the force to be distributed over a larger surface area, thereby decreasing the amount of mechanical stress. -following bone growth the MES threshold increases. -wt training exercises must increase to continue to exceed MES threshold.

PEAK BONE MASS

the highest attainable bone density for an individual, developed during the first three decades of life

Predominant feature of OTS is

the inability to sustain high-intensity exercise when training load is maintained or increased. **often it is due to prolonged NFOR **common mistake is rate of progressive overload that is too high with insufficient recovery.

The primary stimulus for growth of tendons, ligaments and fascia is

the insult from mechanical forces creased during high-intensity exercise. -the degree of adaptation is directly proportional to the intensity of the exercise. *consistent anerobic exercise that exceeds the threshold of strain has a positive effect on stimulating connective tissue changes.

MICROFIBRIL

the parallel arrangement of filaments in collagen p. 100

Procollagen

the precursor to collagen -made up of 3 protein strands twisted around each other in a triple helix. -Procollagen leaves the cell with protective extensions on the ends to prevent premature collagen formation. -Cleavage of the extensions via enzymes result in formation of active collagen that aligns with other collagen molecules to form a long filament. - measurement of these filaments provides an indication of collagen metabolism. -enzyme levels increase in response to training showing increased net Type I collagen synthesis.

PROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD

the training principle that placing increasing amounts of stress on the body causes adaptations that improve fitness

The magnitude of hypertrophy ultimately depends on

the training stimulus and the manner in which the acute training variables are prescribed.

With training and activation of the high-threshold motor units

there is a transition from Type IIx to IIa fiber type.

Tendons and ligaments are composed primarily of

tightly packed, parallel arrangements of collagen bundles.

Principle of Reversibility/Detraining

training-induced adaptations are transient and thus can disappear when the training load is insufficient or removed completely. -strength reductions appear related to neural mechanisms initially, with atrophy predominating as the detraining period extends. -when athlete returns to training, the rate of strength reattainment is high, supporting the paradigm of "muscle memory"

Sprint and jump training have been shown to increase

vastus lateralis fascicle length.

size principle of motor unit recruitment

we recruit small motor units first, then we recruit larger and larger motor units until we have achieved the tension we were aiming for. This is known as the size principle of motor unit recruitment and it helps us to avoid fatigue because different motor units within the same muscle are being stimulated at different times, giving them a chance to relax.

OVERREACHING or FUNCTIONAL OVERREACHING (FOR)

when an athlete undertakes excessive training that leads to SHORT-TERM decrements in performance. -recovery is within a few days or weeks. -used as part of training to allow for "supercompensation" in performance. Overwork and then taper. (when mismanaged in training program can lead to detrimental effects)

EXTREME OVERREACHING (NFOR)

when the intensification of training continues without adequate recovery and regeneration. -leads to stagnation and decrease in performance that will continue for several weeks or months. -first signs and symptoms -decreased performance -increased fatigue -decreased vigor -hormonal disturbances at this point hard to tell difference between NFOR and overtraining syndrome (OTS)