Chapter 5 - Carbohydrates

Hyperglycemia

The primary sign of diabetes is abnormally high blood glucose level.

Nutritive sweeteners

Substances that sweeten and contribute energy to foods.

Alternative sweeteners

Substances that sweeten foods while providing few or no kilocalories.

Galactose; lactose

After a woman gives birth, special glands in her breasts convert glucose into ___, which is necessary for production of ___ in bread milk.

Aspartame

Also known by its trade names "NutraSweet" or "Equal" Consists of phenylaline and aspartic acid, two amino acids - the molecules that comprise proteins.

Carbohydrate; lactose

Although most animal foods are not sources of ___, milk and some products made from milk, such as yogurt and ice cream, contain ___.

Maltase

An enzyme that splits maltose molecules into *glucose* molecules.

Diverticulitis

An inflammation or infection in one or more small pouches in the digestive tract/large intestine. The affected person may need surgery to remove the damaged section of the large intestine.

High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)

Caloric sweetener that is often added to food.

Spores

Can become active bacteria within an infant's intestinal tract and produce a poison that is extremely toxic to nerves.

Alpha cells

Clusters of special cells in the pancreas that produce glucagon.

Lactose

Consists of a molecule of galactose and glucose.

Insulin

Decreases blood glucose. Also influences fat and protein metabolism; enhances energy storage by promoting fat, glycogen, and protein production. Another effect is that you feel satisfied w/ your snack or meal and are no longer hungry.

Diets

Diets in which carbohydrates supply more than 70% of a person's energy needs also result in weight loss, particularly when the diets include foods that are rich in fiber and contain plenty of unrefined starches. People following high-carb diets generally eat less because fiber-rich foods tend to be more filling than similar amounts of food that contain a lot of refined carbs.

Fiber

Diets rich in ___, particularly soluble types, can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by reducing blood cholesterol levels.

Maltose, sucrose, lactose

Disaccharides include ___, ___, and ___.

4 kcal

Each gram of a mono- or disaccharide supplies ___ kcal.

Pancreatic amylase

Enzyme secreted by the pancreas that breaks down starch into maltose molecules in the small intestine.

Modified starches

Examples of these are maltodextrin and dextrin.

9 kcal/g

Fats supply this many calories per gram.

Energy-dense

Foods that contain a lot of added sugars and fats tend to be this.

Soluble fiber

Forms of dietary fiber that dissolve or swell in water. *Examples:* Pectins and gums; oat bran and oatmeal, beans, apples, carrots, oranges, and other citrus fruits, and psyllium seeds are rich sources of this type of fiber.

Insoluble fiber

Forms of dietary fiber that generally do not dissolve in water. *Examples:* Cellulose and lignin; whole-grain products, including brown rice, contain high amounts of this type of fiber.

Lipolysis

Glucagon stimulates this process, which is the breakdown of triglyceride (fat) into *glycerol* and *fatty acids*. -Glycerol and fatty acids rapidly enter into the bloodstream. The liver uses glycerol to produce glucose, and most cells, including muscle cells, can metabolize fatty acids for energy.

Dextrose

Glucose is also called this, and may be referred to as blood sugar.

Bile

Instead of eliminating ___ (produced by the liver and stored by the gallbladder) along with fecal matter in bowel movements, the intestinal tract breaks it down and absorbs its components, eventually entering the liver to recycle the components and make new bile.

Types of dietary fiber

Soluble and insoluble fiber

Viscous fiber

Soluble fiber is referred to as this because it usually forms a gooey, semisolid mass in the intestinal tract that is rapidly fermented by bacterial action.

4 kcal/g

Sugar and carbohydrates supplies this many calories per gram.

Lactase

The enzyme that breaks down the lactose from milk into *glucose* and *galactose* molecules.

Small intestine

The main site for carbohydrate digestion and absorption, but a minor amount of starch digestion begins in the mouth.

Glucose, Fructose, Galactose

The three most important dietary monosaccharides.

Dietary fiber

This decreases the absorption of cholesterol-rich bile acids into the blood.

White sugar

"Raw sugar," turbinado sugar, and some forms of brown sugar are not as fulled processed from sugar cane as ___ ___.

Disaccharide

A simple sugar comprised of two monosaccharides.

Dietary Fiber

Nondigestible plant material; most types are polysaccharides. *Examples:* Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, gums, and mucilages are carbohydrates forms; *lignin* is the only type that is not a carbohydrate. -Made up of monosaccharides and is connected by bonds that humans cannot digest.

Acceptable daily intakes.

Nonnutritive sweeteners are safe when consumed "within *ADI*, even during pregnancy."

45-65%

Nutritionally, adequate diets should provide __ to __% of total energy from carbohydrates.

Empty Calories

Offer little nutritional value other than simple carbohydrates to diets. -Added caloric sweeteners fall under this.

75 pounds

On average, each American consumed about __ _____ of *added* caloric sweeteners in 2013.

Developing nations

People rely on diets that supply 70% or more of energy from relatively unprocessed carbohydrates, especially complex carbohydrates from whole grains, beans, potatoes, corn, and other starchy vegetables.

Industrialized nations

People tend to eat more highly refined starches and added sugars.

200 kcal

People who follow a 2000 kcal/day diet should limit their intake of added sugars to no more than 12 teaspoons per day ( ___ kcal)

Sucralose

Sold under the brand name "Splenda" Made from a molecule of sucrose that has been chemically modified to escape digestion and absorption. This means that it sweetens food and beverages without increasing their caloric value. -It is excreted in feces unchanged. -Resists destruction by heat.

Glycogen

Storage polysaccharide in animals. Contain hundreds of glucose molecules bound together into large chainlike structures.

Added sugars

Sugars added to foods during processing or preparation. -Examples are sucrose and HFCS.

Hyperactivity

Suspected causes of this is genetic factors and environmental factors.

-ose

The chemical names of carbohydrates often end with this suffix.

Essential nutrient

Fiber is not an __ ___, because the human body can live without it. However, you can live *better* by adding fiber-rich foods to your diet; it may reduce your risk of obesity, diabetes, certain intestinal tract disorders, and cardiovascular disease (which includes heart disease and stroke).

Refined carbohydrates

Foods that contain a large amount of these do not satisfy hunger as well as those that contain more protein or fat. -> A person may become hungrier sooner after eating a meal or snack that contains a lot of added sugars and refined starches than if they ate a high-protein, high-fat meal or snack.

Sorbitol, xylitol, mannitol

Alternative nutritive sweeteners include sugar alcohols, which do not promote dental decay:

Sucrose; cane; beets

Although ___ occurs naturally in honey, maple syrup, carrots, and pineapples, much of it is refined from sugar ___ and sugar ___.

Sugar alcohols

Are alternative sweeteners; are not fulled absorbed by the intestinal tract, and as a result supply an average of 2.6 kcal/g. They may cause diarrhea when consumed.

Body fat gain

Caused when a person's intake of food energy from macronutrients and the nonnutrient alcohol exceeds their output of energy for various physiological needs.

Salivary Amylase

Enzyme secreted by the salivary glands that begins starch digestion; converts some of the oat starch molecules into maltose. -Starch digestion stops soon after the food enters the acid environment of the stomach.

Signs and Symptoms of Hyperglycemia

Excessive thirst, frequent urination, blurred vision, and pour wound healing. -Untreated or poorly controlled hyperglycemia damages nerves, organs, and blood vessels and is a major cause of heart disease, kidney failure, blindness, and lower limb amputations.

Glucagon

Increases blood glucose.

A1c Values

Normal: 4.5-5.7% Pre-diabetes: 5.7-6.4% Diabetes: 6.5% +

Plant

Only ___ foods provide fiber; animal flesh contains muscle fibers, which are digestible proteins.

Recommended Dietary Allowance

RDA. The RDA for carbohydrates is 150 g/day; this amount is enough to prevent ketosis.

Fatty acids

The body can convert certain amino acids into glucose, although it cannot use ___ ___ to make glucose.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

The cause may involve genetic and environmental factors; eating sweets can produce pleasurable sensations, but the results of scientific studies do not indicate that sugar increases children's physical activity levels, causes this condition, or otherwise negatively affects their behavior.

38 and 25 g/day

The recommended Adequate Intakes (AIs) for fiber for young men and women, respectively.

Low GI

Raw apples, carrots, spaghetti, fat-free milk, and peanuts. (less than 70)

Liver

Releases glucose into the bloodstream if the body needs energy.

Sugars

Serve as a preservative by inhibiting the growth of molds and bacteria that would otherwise cause food spoilage.

Tooth decay

is associated with consuming certain carbohydrates, particularly si mple sugars that stick to teeth.

Ketosis

A condition that occurs when ketone bodies accumulate in the blood.

Syndrome

Group of signs and symptoms that occur together and indicate a specific health problem.

Plants

Make sugars, starches, and fiber by using the sun's energy to combine w/ carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms from carbon dioxide (carbo-) and water (-hydrate). Solar energy + Carbon dioxide + Water -> Glucose + Oxygen

Food labels for high-fiber products

May indicate amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber in a serving of the product.

Type 1 diabetes

More likely to occur in children and young adults, although the disease can strike at any age. -An autoimmune disease that occurs when certain immune system cells malfunction and do not recognize the body's own beta cells; thus, the immune system cells attack and destroy the beta cells, and the affected person must obtain insulin, usually by injecting the hormone into their body, regularly.

Millions

___ (#) of Americans show signs of lactose intolerance.

Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni

A South American shrub that make some of the newest nonnutritive sweeteners, such as Rebiana (a chemical).

Starvation

This diet lack sources of energy such as glucose and amino acids. Since the body needs glucose to fuel vital activities such as breathing, transmitting nervous impulses, and pumping blood, the skeletal muscles meet the body's energy needs by sacrificing components of their proteins for glucose production. Using muscle proteins for energy extends the person's survival time, but results in muscle wasting, weakness, and eventually death.

Soluble fiber in oats

This interferes with the bile recycling process because it binds to the bile components in the intestinal tract, preventing them from being absorbed. Thus, the bile components are eliminated in bowel movements, and as a result, blood cholesterol levels drop as the liver removes cholesterol from the blood to make new bile.

Glucose food sources

This monosaccharide is usually found in these food sources: Fruits and vegetables, especially berries, grapes, corn, and carrots.

2000 kcal diet

Total fat: 65g Sat fat: 20g Cholesterol: 300mg Sodium: 2400mg Total Carb: 300g Dietary Fiber: 25g

Reactive Hypoglycemia

Type of hypoglycemia that occurs after people eat highly refined carbohydrates due to the pancreas responding by releasing too much insulin.

Plants and animals

Use complex carbohydrates to store energy or make certain structural components such as stems and leaves.

Soluble; insoluble

___ fiber can help reduce blood cholesterol levels, and ___ fiber may ease bowel movements.

True

A diet that is very high in sugar is linked to health problems such as obesity. -Also, obesity is linked to a diet high in refined carbohydrates.

Forms of Starch

*Amylopectin* - Enzyme: Amylase & Debranching enzyme. *Amylose* - Enzyme: Amylase.

Carbohydrates

*Class of nutrients that includes glucose, a major source of energy for the body.* -Includes starch and sugar. -Without a steady supply of energy, cells cannot function and they die. -The pleasant and taste of sugar is a clue the food contains this.

Complex Carbohydrates

*Group of carbohydrates that contain many simple carbohydrate molecules.* -Includes starches and most kinds of fiber.

Simple Carbohydrates

*Group of carbohydrates that includes sugars.* "sugars" "simple sugars" -Include glucose

Blood Glucose regulation

1. Eat a meal 2. Elevate blood glucose 3. Insulin released from the pancreas 4. Blood glucose level returns to normal.

Metabolic syndrome

A condition characterized by three or more of these signs: *Large waist circumference:* > 40 in (men) > 35 in (women) *Chronically elevated blood pressure (hypertension):* > 130 mm Hg systolic (upper value) or > 85 mm Hg diastolic (lower value) or Drug treatment for hypertension. *Chronically elevated fasting blood fats (triglycerides):* > 150 mg/dl or Drug treatment for elevated triglycerides. *Low fasting high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL cholesterol):* < 40 mg/dl (men) < 50 mg/dl (women) or Drug treatment for reduced HDL. *High fasting blood glucose:* > 100 mg/dl or Drug treatment for elevated glucose.

Gestational diabetes

A form of diabetes that pregnant women can develop; as many as 10% of pregnant American women develop this, usually after the fifth month of pregnancy. -Those that have family history of type 2 diabetes, are overweight, or have high blood pressure are more likely to experience this than pregnant women who do not have these characteristics. -The fetus of a woman with this disease receives too much glucose, thus the fetus gains weight rapidly and can be an abnormally heavy weight at birth, weighing 9 lb or more. -After giving birth, most women recover and have normal blood glucose levels.

Diabetes mellitus

A group of serious chronic diseases characterized by abnormal glucose, fat, and protein metabolism.

Nonnutritive sweeteners

A group of synthetic compounds that are intensely sweet tasting compared to sugar. -Do not contribute to dental decay.

Galactose

A monosaccharide that is a component of lactose (the form of carbohydrate in milk) and not commonly found in food.

Fructose

A monosaccharide that is usually found in fruits, honey, and certain vegetables; particularly cabbage, green bears, and asparagus. "levulose" or "fruit sugar."

12 hours

A person's blood glucose levels are usually measured after they have not eaten for about __ ____. Normal levels are 70 to 99 mg/dl.

Phenylketonura

A rare inherited disorder that results in abnormal phenylaline metabolism. If infants with this are not treated with a special diet, phenylaline and its metabolic by-products accumulate in the bloodstream and cause severe brain damage.

Fiber & mixture of nutrients

A single food's effects no blood glucose can be reduced when the food is eaten as part of a meal containing... :

Glucose

A very important simple carbohydrate/monosaccharide because it is a primary energy source for human cells. -Stored in the liver. -Primary fuel for the body's cells. -Red blood cells as well as brain and other nervous system cells burn mostly this for energy.

Glycemic index (GI)

A way of classifying foods by comparing the rise in blood glucose that occurs after eating a portion of a food that supplies 50g of digestible carbohydrate to the rise that occurs after eating a standard source of carbohydrate, such as 50g of glucose.

Glycated hemoglobin

AKA glycosylated hemoglobin or hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) Physicians can measure this to determine their patients' average blood glucose levels over longer periods. -Is a component of hemoglobin that attracts some glucose that is in blood; about 4.5 to 5.7% of a healthy person's hemoglobin is this.

Intestinal cells

Absorb the monosaccharides, and the hepatic portal vein transports them to the liver.

Estimate grams of starch in a serving

Add the number of grams of sugar with that of fiber, then subtract that amount from the grabs of total carbohydrates.

Milk and milk products

Are excellent sources of protein, many vitamins, and the minerals calcium and phosphorus.

Polysaccharides

Are sometimes called complex carbohydrates, are made of 10 or more monosaccharides bonded together, and are found chiefly in grains, vegetables, and fruits. -Examples: Starch and glycogen.

Glycogenolysis

Breaks down glycogen; the process releases glucose into the bloodstream, which helps maintain your blood glucose level in the normal range. This occurs if you ignore the hunger signals and do not eat. The alpha cells secrete glucagon, and it opposes the insulin's effects by promoting the breakdown of glycogen.

Honey

Can contain spores, the inactive life stage of the deadly bacterium *Clostridium botulinum* that resist being destroyed by food preservation methods.

Ketone bodies

Chemicals that result from incomplete fat breakdown. -Caused when someone has poorly controlled diabetes, is fasting or starving, or follows a very low-carb/high-protein diet; their cells must use greater-than-normal amounts of fat for energy, so there is not enough glucose available for cells to metabolize the fat efficiently. -Muscle and brain cells can use these for energy,

Hemorrhoids

Clusters of small rectal veins that become swollen, making them likely to bleed and cause discomfort and itching. -May occur when a person sits for long periods or strains during bowel movements.

Beta cells

Clusters of special cells in the pancreas that produce insulin.

Pre-diabetes

Condition characterized by fasting blood glucose levels that are 100 to 125 mg/dl. -Does not have diabetes, but has a high risk of cardiovascular disease and eventually developing type 2 diabetes. -Individuals who have a fasting blood glucose level of 126 mg/dl or more have diabetes.

Hypoglycemia

Condition that occurs when the blood glucose level is too low to provide enough energy for cells. -May be diagnosed when the blood glucose level is less than 70 mg/dl.

Ketoacidosis

Condition that occurs when the body forms excessive ketone bodies and causes the blood to become acidic. If not treated, it can cause loss of consciousness and even death.

Sucrose

Consists of a molecule of glucose and one of fructose (table sugar).

Diverticula

Constipation often results in straining to expel feces during bowel movements, which can increase pressure inside the large intestine and force small portions of tissue to form tiny sacs in the wall of the colon, called colonic ___.

High GI

Cornflakes, baked potatoes, white rice. (70 or more)

Signs and symptoms of ketoacidosis

Excessive thirsty, frequent urination, and a blood glucose level of more than 250 mg/dl. -May also have nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and confusion. -Breath may also have a fruity or acetone odor.

Maltose

Has two glucose molecules bonded together (malt sugar). -Few foods naturally contain this.

70-100 mg/dL

Healty blood glucose level is between ___-___ milligrams per deciliter of blood.

12 months

Honey should not be fed to children younger than __ _____ of age or used to sweeten infant foods because it may cause botulism poisoning.

Epinephrine

In response to rapidly declining blood glucose levels, the adrenal glands secrete this hormone (common name is adrenaline), which increases the supply of glucose and fatty acids in the bloodstream, like glucagon, but the hormone can also make a person with hypoglycemia feel irritable, restless, shaky, and sweaty.

Cyclamate

The FDA banned this nonnutritive sweetener in 1970 after research indicated that the substance caused bladder cancer in mice. In the 1980s, panels of experts at the FDA and National Academy of Sciences reviewed the scientific evidence and determined that the substance did not increase the risk of cancer in humans, but it is still banned in the US.

Succharin, aspartame, acesulfame-K, sucralose, neotame, and stevia extracts

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the use of the nonnutritive sweeteners (list 6) as additives to sweeten foods, as well as other products that may be swallowed, such as mouthwash and toothpaste.

Fructose; glucose or fat

The body has little need for ___; therefore, most is converted into ___ or ___.

Hepatic portal vein

The final products of starch digestion, glucose molecules, are absorbed into the intestinal bloodstream and transported to the liver via the ___ ___ ___.

Glycemic load (GL)

The grams of carbohydrate in a serving of food multiplied by the food's GI; then divided by 100. -May be a more realistic way of rating food bc the value indicates the relative rise in blood glucose levels after eating a typical serving of a carbohydrate-containing food.

Limited

The human body stores ___ amounts of glucose as glycogen. Muscles and the liver are the major sites for glycogen formation and storage. -Most animal foods are not sources of glycogen because muscle glycogen breaks down soon after an animal dies.

Lactose intolerance

The inability to digest lactose completely/properly. -Those suffering from this do not produce enough lactase, which is the enzyme that breaks lactose into glucose and galactose. -More likely to occur in adulthood, as children two years and younger normally produce lactase.

Whole grains

The intact, ground, cracked, or flaked seeds of cereal grains. May include wheat, buckwheat, oats, corn, rice, wild rice, rye, barley, bulgur, millet, and sorghum. -Must contain the starchy endosperm, oily germ, and fiber-rich bran seed components in the same relative proportions as they exist in the intact grain.

Type 2 diabetes

The majority of people have this type of diabetes, which used to be called "adult-onset diabetes." -The most common form of diabetes; beta cells of people with this disease usually produce insulin, but the hormone's target cells are insulin-resistance, which means that they do not respond properly to the hormone and do not allow glucose to enter them. Thus, the level of glucose in the bloodstream becomes abnormally elevated and the typical signs and symptoms of diabetes occur.

Friendly intestinal bacteria

The microorganisms that reside in the large intestine/colon that can break down (ferment) the soluble fiber and metabolize the fermentation products for energy.

Monosaccharide

The simplest type of sugar that is the basic chemical unit of carbohydrates.

Sucrase

The small intestine enzyme that splits each sucrose molecule, forming one *glucose* and one *fructose* molecule in the process.

Starch

The storage form of carbohydrates in plants and is made up of multiple units of glucose attached together. -Stored in their seeds, roots, and fleshy underground stems called tubers. *Food sources*: Bread and cereal products made from wheat, rice, barley, and oats; vegetables such as corn, squash, beans, and peas; and tubers such as potatoes, yams, taro, cassava, and jicama.

Diabetes prevention

There is no way to prevent type 1 diabetes, although by losing some excess body fat and increasing physical activity levels, people with pre-diabetes can prevent or delay the onset of type 2 diabetes and lower their risk of heart disease & stroke.