Chapter 5
the planning phase
occurs immediately after the athletes is injured. During this phase, it is important to identify what the expectations are in terms of recovery timelines and rehabilitation milestones
goals are more effective when they involve _______
other people (ex: multiple people making the same goal)
Goal efficacy is positively related to _____
perceptions of goal achievement
Later in the program, ______ may be set to reflect milestones like achieving a given strength level or running for a length of time on a treadmill
performance goals
One possible approach to obtain this information is to use _______
performance profiling
It has been suggested that athletes and therapists follow which three-step process when setting goals?
planning, implementation, and evaluation
Early in rehabilitation, ______ may be more salient (important) as athletes work on executing specific movements, such as range of motion or basic mobility exercises
process goals
Specific goals
provide clear and narrow behavioural targets and thus signal the type and AMOUNT OF EFFORT that is necessary to perform a task.
Related to time is the element of ______
proximity
Jeffry, Wing, Sherwood, and Tate (2003) study: methods
randomly assigned 202 overweight men and women a standard behavior therapy treatment for obesity with either a standard exercise goal or a high exercise goal
In addition to the basic reasons why goals setting is effective, in rehabilitation it might also _____________ -which is most effective?
reduce anxiety, promote greater perceptions of control (most effective), and foster more positive outcome attributions (i.e. athletes attribute progress to their own effort, rather than external factors)
Just as short-term goals can be effective for improving sport performance, they can also be extremely beneficial during ______
rehabilitation
There is some evidence that _______ goals are better than assigned goals
self- and collaboratively set
A considerable amount of the literature regarding exercise goal content is grounded in ______ theory
self-determination
Forms of __________, are a common addition to goals setting interventions -such as?
self-monitoring -such as diaries, contracts, action plans, and exercise logs
Greater self-efficacy likely prompts individuals to _______, which are associated with improved performance
set higher personal goals
Evans and Hardy (2002) investigated the effect of a goal-setting adherence among 77 injured athletes and found that goal setting ________
significantly improved adherence and increased self-efficacy for rehabilitation
Team goals without accompanying individual goals may reduce performance by prompting _______ (Burton and Weiss, 2008)
social loafing
In the real world, goal-setting interventions are rarely, if ever, conducted in the absence of _______
some other intervention component
goal
something that which one wants to accomplish; it concerns a valued future end state'
Riediger and Freund (2004) showed that the degree to which participants indicated that their concurrent (one exercise and three non-exercise) goals facilitated one another at month 1, predicted what?
the amount of exercise they did at months 4 and 5
Both _______ are responsible for supporting the achievement of set goals during this phase
the athletes and therapist
Goal efficacy
the degree to which a person is confident in his or her ability to meet a goal
Senecal, Loughead, and Bloom (2008) study: purpose
to determine if a season-long team goal-setting intervention influenced team cohesion
Podlog and Dionigi (2010) found that coaches believe goal setting to be the most important strategy that they can use to help injured players ________
transition back into competition
Goal setting is a fundamental strategy for helping athletes _______
transition from recovery to performance
Because a goal represents a valued objective to individuals, goal setting should act as an _____ towards behaviour change
incentive
Proximity
increasing the nearness of a goal to increase motivation
Goal-setting interventions have often targeted _______
individual athletes
Theodorakis and colleagues (1996) study: looked at?
investigated the relationship between goal setting and knee extension strength in a sample of university-aged female athletes
researchers and practitioners endorse the use of specific goals over general goals because specific goals present _______ that allow people to determine actionable steps
measurable behavioural targets
the evaluation phase
measuring progress toward set goals, and the provision of feedback regarding successes and setbacks
Most athletes rate their goals as being only _____ in enhancing sport performance
moderately effective
Studies of goal setting for health behavior change (including exercise and healthy eating) have shown that people perform better when their goals are _____
more challenging
Researchers have begun to test the idea that exercise and other goals might be ________
mutually facilitative
Identify a point in time at which the goal is to be ______, thereby increasing _____
-achieved -motivation.
Athletes may find goal setting only moderately effective because they do not _______ the goals they have set for themselves or they are ______ about how to effectively set goals
-acknowledge -uncertain
what are some potential negative impacts of goal setting?
-added stress -setting unrealistic goals -over focusing on one thing, not enough energy for other things -reduce intrinsic motivation -become more result-focused, rather than progress-focused -can give you a sense of failure if goal isn't met
goal setting is _____ in exercise and is usually _______
-common -combined with other intervention techniques
It is not surprising that goal-setting interventions are effective for promoting exercise given that goal setting works by ________ and that lack of _______ are significant barriers to regular exercise
-directing attention, effort, and motivation toward the task -effort and motivation
goal setting is very _____ in sport. Athletes should set goals for both _______.
-effective -practice and competition
Challenging goals cause us to increase our ______,______,and______ which make us more likely to be successful in ______
-effort, persistence, and concentration -task performance
Intrinsic exercise goals are positively associated with _______, and negatively associated with _______
-exercise class attendance, workout enjoyment, and behvaioural persistence -social physique anxiety
In the exercise domain, intrinsic goals are related to ________ whereas extrinsic goals are related to _______
-health management, skill development, and social affiliation -image improvement and social recognition
extrinsic goals are positively related to indices of _________, and negatively related to ________
-ill-being and social physique anxiety -self-esteem, attendance at exercise sessions, exercise adherence, and enjoyment
Most studies of goal-directed behavior focus on different types of goals ________; however, in the real world we peruse ________
-independently -many goals simultaneously
One approach to setting proximal goals is reducing ______ into ______ that are more easily achieved and through which the larger goal can be attained
-large, distant goals (long-term goals) -smaller sub-goals (short term goals)
It is crucial that goals are _______ to both ________ to ensure maximum success
-meaningful -the athletes and the therapist
Research reviews have shown goal setting in sport is indeed effective and that _______ goals are best. _____% of studies have shown _______ effects of goal setting on behavior
-moderately difficult -78% -moderate-to-strong
Goal commitment is increased when attaining the goal is ______ and when the goal setter believes that achievement of the goal is _______ -examples of each?
-particularly important to the goal setter (ex: the outcome of the goal is highly desirable) -possible (i.e. self-efficacy for achieving the goal is high)
The achievement of short-term goals provides _______ that recovery is progressing, which gives the athletes a sense of _______ and a more ______ outlook
-positive reinforcement -control -positive
Keep in mind, however, that goals need to be ______ - the only thing worse than a goal that is not challenging enough is one that proves to be _______
-realistic -too challenging
It is important for the medical team to draw on their clinical expertise to make sure that the athlete has _______, but also for the athletes to ______ to the therapist
-realistic expectations -communicate his or her priorities
For goal setting to be effective, goals must be evaluated on a _______. There is no sense setting goals if they are not ______
-regular basis -evaluated
Team goal setting extends individual goal setting in that it also attempts to foster _______ among the team members, while helping the team with its ________
-respect and cohesiveness -focus and direction
what are some general recommendations for goal setting interventions?
-set SMART goals -the progress toward goal achievement should be evaluated on a regular basis -it is important to write down goals and make them public -set goals in collaboration with others
It is common for fitness trainers and health care professionals to _____ for exercise initiates and patients. Often these individuals do not have the ________ for setting their own goals
-set goals -knowledge base
Goal setting interventions focused on ______ have not been researched to the same extent as interventions for ______
-the team -individual athletes
Goals typically serve different functions in training versus competition, thus suggesting the ______ set in these situations may be different. Some support for such differences has been found
-types of goals
The resultant completed profile provides a useful _______ as to the athlete's perceived strengths and weaknesses, from which goals can be set around the athlete's ______
-visual display -weaknesses
If athletes are to set measurable, quantifiable goals, they need to determine _______ and what their current ______ are
-what these goals should be -performance standards (i.e. how they presently perform with respect to each target goal)
Researchers argue which are the four main reasons why goal setting works?
1. Directs action by focusing attention 2. Increases effort and intensity 3. Encourages persistence in the face of adversity or failure 4. Promotes the development of new task of problem-solving strategies
The traditional performance profiling procedure follows which three simple steps?
1. In the first step a completed performance profile, either in the form of a circular target or column chart, is presented to the athletes to reinforce the basic procedure and to emphasize what will be gained from the process 2. Step two involves the generation of qualities that underpin athletic performance in the sport in question. This is accomplished by having the athlete answer the following question: "what, in your opinion, are the qualities or characteristics of an elite athletes in your sport?" The athletes generate a list of qualities across technical, physical psychological and tactical attributes 3. The third step entails the athlete's self-assessment of their ability in each of the chosen performance attributes. Athletes typically rate their current perception of their ability in each quality via a scale of 1 ("lowest possible ability") to 10 ("ideal level of performance")
Mallalieu et al. (2006) study: 3 stages of interventions
1. In the goal determination stage, each participant selected on of the five behaviours for improvement (ex: tackles made). The frequency of each participant-selected performance behavior was then recorded for the first half of the competitive season 2. At the midseason break, the goal-setting took place. Based on the mean values for each participant's performance from the first half of the season, a series of numerical values (goals) for the targeted performance was generated for the second half of the season 3. In the goal-reviewing stage, the researcher met individually with the players 48 hours before each match in the second half of the season and reviewed their numerical scores for the target behaviours
Mallalieu et al. (2006) study: assessed which 5 performance behaviours?
1. number of ball carriers was employed to determine the frequency with which a player attempted to gain yardage with the ball carried in hand 2. and 3. number of tackles (either made or missed) was used to measure the player's success or failure in preventing an opponent from carrying the ball 4. a successful kick was defined as a kick out of hand from a player with the aim of successfully putting the ball out of the field of play 5. number of turnovers won was used to measure the frequency with which a player managed to steal possession of the ball from the opposing team
what are the 3 types of goals that individuals can set?
1. outcome goals 2. process goals 3. performance goals
Jeffry, Wing, Sherwood, and Tate (2003) study: results
At 6-, 12-, and 18-month assessments, the group assigned to the high exercise goals reported engaging in more physical activity than the group assigned to the standard exercise goals
Mallalieu et al. (2006) study: results
For all participants, post-intervention performance was improved Player 1 demonstrated a 77% increase in ball carriers per game. Player 2 exhibited an increase of 32% for the number of tackles made, whereas player 3 demonstrated a desirable decrease of 55% in his tackles missed. Player 4 showed a 26% improvement for successful kicks, and finally player 5 demonstrated a 118% increase in turnovers won.
_______ is the most commonly used performance-enhancement strategy in sport psychology
Goal setting
Theodorakis and colleagues (1996) study: methods
Participants were divided into three groups, including one experimental group of 32 knee injured women (group 1), one experimental group of 29 healthy women (group 2), and one control group of 30 healthy women (group 3) All three groups performed four trials of a knee extension task on an isokinetic dynamometer. The two experimental groups (group 1 and 2) set personal performance goals between trails 2 and 3. Based on feedback they received after trial 3, they set another performance goal before completing trial 4.
Senecal, Loughead, and Bloom (2008) study: results
Players in both conditions reported similar levels of cohesion prior to the intervention, however, following the season-long intervention the goal-setting players were significantly higher in the cohesion then the control participants. This finding was a result of the control players experiencing a decrease in cohesion and the players in the goal-setting condition maintaining their levels of cohesion over the course of the season.
SMART goals
Specific Measurable Adjustable Realistic Time-oriented
Senecal, Loughead, and Bloom (2008) study: methods
The participants were 86 female high school senior basketball players from 8 teams. Four teams were randomly assigned to a goal-setting condition and the remaining four teams to a control condition The goal-setting sessions took place before a practice in the team's facility and took 20-30 minutes to complete Similar to the players in the intervention, the players in the control condition were asked to complete a measure of cohesion before the start of the season and after the season ended; however, they received no additional information
Theodorakis and colleagues (1996) study: results
The study showed that both goal-setting groups performed better on trials 3 and 4 compared to the control group, and there was a significant correlation between performance, self-efficacy, and self-satisfaction
what are the differences in goal-setting in training vs. competition?
Training: -learning-focused -minimal evaluation -minimal social comparison -focus on skills-development and self competition: -performance-focused -social comparisons -mental toughness -execution-based
Goal setting is most effective when people are _____ to achieving their goals
committed
social loafing
a phenomenon in which people working together on a task tend to exert less individual effort than when they perform the same task alone
Although it seems obvious that return to sport is the ultimate objective of most rehabilitation programs, _________ is often insufficient to keep an athlete motivated during a protracted recovery period
a single long-term goal
It is important that short-term goals include _______
a variety of process and performance objectives
you should ______ your goal when necessary
adjust
Measurable goals are necessary in order to ______
assess progress
Educational resources outlining ___________ are also common additions to goal-setting interventions
benefits, recommendations, tips, and problem-solving strategies
Goal setting has been a topic of interest in psychological for decades and has been examined in many domains including ________
business, education, and sport.
It was shown that people who are more _________ perceive themselves as more successful in obtaining those goals at the end of the program
confident in their ability to meet their exercise goals at the outset of an exercise programs
Understanding how exercise goals can be either ________ with our other life goals may help determine how we set goals for exercise
conflicting or congruent
Mallalieu et al. (2006) study: looked at?
examined the effects of goal setting on selected performance behaviors of 5 male collegiate rugby players over an entire competitive season
intrinsic goals
focused on internal indicators such as developing personal interests and values and are inherently satisfying to pursue
extrinsic goals
focused on the pursuit of external worth, such as wealth, fame, and material possessions
self-determination theory
goal content may be intrinsic or extrinsic in nature
of all the psychological interventions that can be incorporated into an injury rehabilitation program, _______ is the most widely accepted and most frequently used
goal setting
Locke and his colleagues (1981), after reviewing the literature, concluded that "the beneficial effect of _______ is one of the most replicable findings in the psychology literature"
goal setting on task performance
implementation phase
goals are monitored as the athlete undergoes treatment
performance goals -examples?
goals that focus on improving and attaining personal performance standards such as perfect attendance over a session of aerobics classes or the achieving the ability to job 5 miles -for weight loss, eating a certain amount of calories/day
outcome goals -often dependent on? -examples?
goals that focus on social comparison and standards of success, such as winning a game or making it into the finals of a track and field event. -often dependent on the ability and performance of others -don't give you specific steps to take in order to reach goal -results are not in your control -ex: preparing for an interview
process goals -examples?
goals that focus on specific procedures an individual wants to improve -ex: spend more time working on rehabilitation exercises, change transportation to lose weight
There is a prevailing belief in the rehabilitation community that goals setting is a successful strategy for ______
improving adherence
