Chapter 5: Middle Childhood

Gross motor activity

Girls and boys should engage in same sport and games until puberty when the smaller size of females makes the more susceptible to injury 6yrs: girls superior in accuracy of movement; boys superior in more forceful, less complex acts 7yrs: can balance on one foot with eyes closed 8yrs: can grip objects with 12 pounds of pressure 9yrs: can jump vertically 10yrs: can judge and intercept directions of small balls thrown from a distance. Both girls and boys can run 17 feet per second 11yrs: boys can achieve standing broad jump of 5 feet; girls can achieve standing broad jump of 4.5 feet 12yrs: can achieve high jump of 3 feet

A child's response to divorce many include _______

Increased anxiety, sleep disturbances, and depression

According to Erikson, from roughly ages 6 to 12, children go through the period characterized by efforts to meet the challenges presented by parents, peers, school, and the other complexities of the modern world. This stage is called

Industry versus inferiority

Mild intellectual disability

Intellectual disability in which IQ scores fall in the range of 50 or 55 to 70 -about 90% of the intellectually disabled

Severe intellectual disability

Intellectual disability in which IQ scores range from 20 or 25 o 35 or 40 -most significant level -the ability to function is severely limited

Moderate intellectual disability

Intellectual disability in which IQ scores range from 35 or 40 to 50 or 55 - composing of 5 to 10% of hose classified with intellectual disabilities

According to ______, people pass through a series of six stages as their sense of justice and their level of reasoning evolves with age and cognitive development

Kohlberg

What is the term for an understanding about the processes that underlie memory, which emerges and improves during middle childhood

Metamemory

Health and school-agers

Middle childhood is period of robust health -routine immunization! -at least 90% of children in middle childhood have at least one serious medical condition, but more are short term illnesses

Kohlberg Moral Development: Stage 5

Morality of contract, individual rights and democratically accepted law: people rightly feel obligated to follow the agreed rules of society. But societies develop over time, trikes have to be updated to make societal changes reflect underlying social principles

Kohlberg Moral Development: Stage 6

Morality of individual principles and conscience: people accept that laws are attempts to write down specific applications of universal moral principles. Individuals must test these laws against their conscience, which tend to express an inborn sense of those principles

Gilligan: stage 3

Morality of nonviolence -the same girl must realize that both friends must enjoy their time together and look for activities that both she and her friend enjoy.

One explanation for the advances in fine motor skills during middle school involved the increase in the amount of _____ in the brain.

Myelin

Kohlberg Moral Development: Stage 1

Obedience and punishment orientation: people obey rules to g punished. Obedience is its own reward

Childhood obesity

Obesity: is defined as body weight that is more than 20% above the berate for a given age and height. -15% of US children are obese -obese children are more likely to become obese as adults and have a great risk of heart disease, diabetes, and other diseases. -obesity is caused by a combination of genetic and social characteristics as well as diet ->not enough exercise: low because of technology (TV, video games, etc.)

Gilligan: Stage 1

Orientation toward individual survival -a first grader may insist on playing only games of her own choosing when playing with a friend

Blended families

Remarried couples who have at least one stepchild living with them -17% of all children in the US live in blended families -children often deal with role ambiguity, in which roles and expectations are unclear. -school-age children adjust relatively smooth compared to adolescents -the higher population of the family increases opportunities for social interactions

Kohlberg Moral Development: Stage 2

Reward orientation: people obey rules to earn rewards for their own benefit

Speech impairment

Speech that deviates so much from the speech of others that it calls attention to itself, interferes with communication, or produces maladjustment in the speaker -can accompany auditory speech -affects 3-5% of school-age population

__________ is the evaluation of the role or person by other relevant members of the group and is usually discussed in reference to children and their peer groups.

Status

What is the term for a substantial disruption in the rhythm and fluency of speech and is the most common speech impairment

Stuttering

________, the most common speech impairment, involved a substantial disruption in the rhythm and fluency of speech.

Stuttering

Childhood-onset fluency disorder or stuttering

Substantial disruption in the rhythm and fluency of speech; the most common speech impairment

When middle-school-age children understand the rules of language that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences, this is called

Syntax

For Children whose intelligence falls below the normal range, the recommendation from the Education for All Handicapped Children Act is that they be educated in _________environment.

The least restrictive

Cultural assimilation model

The model in which the goal was to assimilate individual cultural identities into unique, unified American culture.

Memory

The process by which information is initially recorded, stored, and retrieved -encoding: child records the information in a form usable to memory -retrieving: material in storage is located, made conscious, and used -> short-term memory or working memory capacity improves greatly -children need to know not only how to use a memory strategy but also when and where it is most effected - ex.) keyword strategy can help students learn a foreign language

Kohlberg Moral Development: Stage 3

"Good boy" mortality: people want o be respected by others and try to do what they're supposed to do

Sibling rivalry

-during middle childhood children spend less time with their parents -sibling rivalry can occur, especially when the sibilants are the same sex and similar in age. -parents may intensify sibling rivalry be seeming to favor one child over another -culture differences are linked to sibling experiences - Mexican -only children: are better adjusted, with higher self-esteem and stronger motivation to achieve.

Divorce

-how children react to divorce depends on several factors. One is the economic stands of the family the child is living with. In many cases, divorce brings a decline in both parents standard of living. When this happens children may be thrown into poverty

triarchic theory of intelligence

-influenced by information-processing approach Sternberg's theory that intelligence is made up of three major components: componential: reflects how efficiently people process and analyze information experiential: the insightful component of intelligence contextual: element concerns practical intelligence, or ways dealing with everyday demands

Nutrition

-is related to social and emotional functioning at school age. ->children who receive more nutrients are more involved with their peers, show more positive emotion, and have less anxiety than children with less adequate nutrients. -is also related to cognitive performance ->children well nourished performed better on a test of verbal abilities and on other cognitive measures than those who had mild to moderate undernutrition. -only time when girls are taller than boys

Single-parent families

-one quarter of all children younger than 18 in the US live with only one parent, 60% of African American, and 35% Hispanic -often less well-off financially than two-parent families, and living in relative poverty has a negative impact on children

Poverty and family life

-poor families have fewer everyday resources, and there are more disruption in children's lives. Parents may be less responsive to their children's needs and provide less social support -economically disadvantaged children are at risk for poorer academic performance, higher rates of aggression, and conduct problems. -the chronic stress associated with poverty makes children more susceptible to cardiovascular disease, depression, and diabetes

Families with gay and lesbian parents

-research shows that children apart of same sex parenting developed similarly to the children of heterosexual families. -one significant difference is the quality of the relationship between parent and child; interestingly the gay and lesbian parents reported having better relationships with their children than did heterosexual parents -another difference is the discrimination and prejudice because of their parents sexual orientation

Asthma

-significant increases in prevalence over the last several decades -more than 15mil US children suffer from the disorder -racial and ethnic minorities are particularly at risk for the disease

Language development

-the average 6yrs old has a vocabulary of 8,000-14,000 words whereas another 5,000 words appear from ages 9-11 -during middle childhood the use of passive voice and conditional sentences increases -children's understanding of syntax, the rules governing how reason for advances is the amount of myelin in the brain increases significantly between ages 6-8 rods and phrases can be combined to form sentences, grows -helps children control and regulate their behavior -> marshmallow treats

Reading: Stage 1

1st-2nd grade: Brings the first real type of readings but it largely involves phonological recording skills. At this stage, children can sound out words by blending the letters together

Reading: Stage 2

2nd-3rd grade: children learn to read aloud with fluency. However, they do not attach much meaning to the words because the effort involved in simply sounding out the words is usually so great that relatively few cognitive resources are left over to process the meaning of the words.

Reading: Stage 3

4th-8th grade: reading becomes a means to an end- in particular a way to learn. Whereas earlier reading was an accomplishment, by this point children use reading to learn about the world.

Visual impairment

A difficulty in seeing that may include blindness or partial sightedness -legal: blindness is visual acuity below 20/200 after correction (the ability to see at 20 ft what is typically seen at 200 ft) -> does not consider abilities in the perception of color, depth, and light all of which influence a student's success -Partial: visual acuity of less than 20/70 after correction.

Intellectual disability

A disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills -approximately 1-3% of school-aged children are considered to be intellectually disabled -most cases are classified as familial intellectual disability, in which no cause is appear beyond a history of retardation intelligence family. -other cases are caused by FAS and Down syndrome

Multicultural education

A form of education in which the goal is to help students develop confidence in the culture of the majority group while maintaining positive group identities that build on their original cultures

ADHD

A learning disorder marked by inattention, impulsiveness, a low tolerance for frustration, and generally a great deal of inappropriate activity. -symptoms: persistence difficulty in finishing tasks, following instructions, and organizing work; fidgeting, squirming, inability to watch an entire television program; frequency interruption of others or excessive talking; a tendency to jump into a task before hearing all the instructions; difficulty in waiting or remaining seated. -boys are twice as likely to be diagnosed -related to a delay in neural development. Specifically, it may be that the thickening of the brain's cortex, which lags in children with ADHD 3yrs behind that of children without the disorder -treatment: Ritalin or Dexedrine which can cause irritability, reduced appetite, and depression; and behavior therapy. ->some research has shown links between ADHD and children's diet, particularly in terms of FATTY acids or food additives, dietary treatments have some times been prescribed, but usually insufficient by themselves.

coregulation

A period in which parents and children jointly control children's behavior -parents provide broad guidelines for conduct, and children control their everyday behavior. -ex.) parents may urge their daughter to buy a nutritious school lunch, but the daughter's decision to buy pizza and two desserts is her own

Concrete operational stage

A period of cognitive development between ages 7 to 12 years of age, which is characterized by the active, and appropriate, use of logic -ex.) confronting conservation problems and no longer judging by appearance -grasping of concepts such as the relationship between time and speed

intelligence quotient (IQ)

A score that accounts for a student's mental and chronological age IQ=MA/CA x100

Auditory impairment

A special need that involves the loss of hearing or some aspect of hearing -can cause social as well as academic problems -affects 1-2% of the school-age population

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Forth Edition (WISC-IV)

A test for children that provides separate measures for v real and performance (or nonverbal) skills, as well as a total score Verbal scale: information, comprehension, arithmetic, similarities Performance scale: digit symbol, picture completion, and object assembly

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition (SB5)

A test that consists of a series of items that vary according to the age of the tested -younger children are asked about everyday activities or given complex figures to copy -older people are asked to explain proverbs, solve analogies, and describe similarities between word groups.

Industry versus Inferiority

According to Erik Erikson, the period from ages 6-12 characterized by a focus on efforts to attain competence in meeting the challenges presented by parents, peers, a school, and the other complexities of the modern world -children direct their energies to mastering the enormous body of information presented in school and making a place for themselves in their social worlds. -success in this stage brings feelings of mastery and a growing sense of competence -on the other hand, difficulties in this stage lead to feelings of failure and inadequacy: as a result, children may withdraw from academic pursuits, showing less interest and motivation to excel, and from interactions with peers

Vygotsky's approach to Cognitive Development

According to Vygostsky, education should focus on activities that involve interaction with others. The interactions must be carefully structured to fall within each child's ZPD. -cooperative thinking: where children work. Groups to achieve a common goal, uses several aspects of Vygostky's theory. -> imply individual children benefit most when some of the group members are more competent at the task and can act as experts. -reciprocal teaching: a technique to teach reading comprehension strategies.

Race and family life

African American: have a particularly strong sense of family, offering welcome and support to extended family members in their homes. There is a relatively high level of female-headed households, extended families lead crucial social and economic support, and relatively high leave of grandparents-head of household Hispanics: children's sense of self stems from family. They are taught to value their family ties and to see themselves as a central part of an extended family Asian American: fathers are apt to be powerful figures who maintain discipline. Children tend to believe that family needs have a higher priority than personal needs, and males in particular, are expected to care for their parents throughout their lifetime.

Stage 3: basing friendship on psychological closeness

Ages 11-15: friendship becomes characterized by feelings of closeness,usually brought on by sharing personal thoughts and feelings. They are also somewhat exclusive

Stage 1: basing friendships on other's behavior

Ages 4-7: children see friends as others who like them and with whom they share toys and other activities. They view the children they spend the most time with as their friends. -they seldom consider others personal qualities as the basis of friendship, instead they use a concrete approach, primarily choosing friends for their behavior

stage 2: basing friendship on trust

Ages 8-10: involved taking others personal qualities and traits as well as the rewards they provide into consideration, but the centerpiece is mutual trust.

Social identity theory

An explanation for the complex relationship between self-esteem and minority groups. According to the theory minority group members are likely to accept the majority groups negative views only if they perceive that there is little possibilities of changing the power and status differences between the groups.

When it comes to school-age children and injuries associated with accidents, which of the following statements is true?

Boys are significantly more likely than girls to be injured

Cross-race friendships

By age 11-12 African American children become particularly aware of and sensitive to the prejudice and discrimination directed toward members of their race.

Malnutrition

Can influence cognitive development by dampening children's curiosity, responsiveness, and motivation to learn

Stages of friendship

Developmental psychologist William Damon

Gilligan's Three Stages of moral development in women

Differences inc boys and girls raised in out society lead to basic distinctions in how men and women view moral behavior. -boys view morality primarily in terms of broad principles such as justice or fairness -girls see it in terms of responsibility toward individuals and willingness to sacrifice themselves to help specific individuals within the context of particular relationships

Learning disabilities

Difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities

Pragmatics

The rules governing use of language to communicate in social settings -conversation between 11year olds is more give-and-take

Mental age

The typical intelligence level found for people at given chronological age

Bilingualism

The use of more than one language -advantages: show greater cognitive flexibility, solve problems with greater creativity and versatility, higher-self esteem in minority students, have a greater metalinguistic awareness, and show great cognitive sophistication.

Social problem-solving

The use of strategies for solving social conflicts in ways that are satisfactory both to oneself and to others -popular children show a better understanding of others behaviors

Which of the following is a fine motor skill? Running Jumping rope Typing on a keyboard Throwing a football

Typing on a keyboard

Fine motor activity

Typing, writing in cursive, drawing detailed pictures. 6-7yrs: tie shoes & fasten buttons 8yrs: they can use hands independently 11-12yrs: can manipulate objects with almost as much capability as they will show in adults

Phonemes

Units of sound. - j, v, th, and she sounds develope later

Learned helplessness

Unpopular children fall visits to this phenomenon because they don't understand the root causes of their unpopularity, so they feel that they have little of no ability to improve their situation. As a result they give up and don't even try to become more involved with their peers.

dynamic assessment

Vygotsky's view of intelligence: Intelligence is reflected both in how children perform on their own and how they perform when helped by adults

According to the ____ approach to reading, reading should be taught by presenting the basic skills underlying reading. examples include phonics and how letters and words are combined to make words.

Whole-language

Vygotsky proposed that cognitive advances take place when children are exposed to information within their

Zone of proximal development

Enrichment

an approach through which students are kept at grade level but are enrolled in special programs and given individual activities to allow greater depth of study on a given topic -an alternative approach to acceleration

Mainstreaming

an educational approach in which exceptional children are integrated to the extent possible into the traditional educational system and are provided with a broad range of educational alternatives -an alternative is full inclusion: is the integration of all students, even those with the most severe disabilities, into regular classes

Self-care children

children who let themselves into their homes after school and wait alone until their caretakers return from work; previously known as latchkey children -12-14% of children in the US between the ages of 5 and 12 -gives children time to focus on homework and be apart of the household chores - raising self esteem

Gifted and talented

children who show evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership capacity, or specific academic fields

Profound intellectual disability

intellectual disability in which IQ scores fall below 20 or 25 -most significant level -the ability to function is severely limited

Bicultural identity

maintaining one's original cultural identity while integrating oneself into the dominant culture

Advances in fine motor skills

reason for advances is the amount of myelin in the brain increases significantly between ages 6-8 -speeds up electrical impulses between neurons

Acceleration

special programs that allow gifted students to move ahead at their own pace, even if this means skipping to higher grade levels -an approach to teach gifted and talented students

code-based approaches to reading

teachers should focus on the basic skills that underlie reading. -emphasizes the components of reading such as letter sounds and combinations (phonics) and how letters and sounds combine to make words.

Crystallized intelligence

the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that people have learned through experience and that they can apply in problem-solving situations -ex.) Poole solving cross-word puzzles

Pluralistic society model

the concept that American society is made up of diverse, coequal cultural groups that should preserve their individual cultural features.

Status

the evaluation of a role or person by other relevant members of a group -children with a higher status have greater access to recourses -children with lower status are more likely to follow their lead -status is an important determinant in friendships.

Reversibility

the notion that transformations to a stimulus can be reversed -also gained in concrete operational stage -ex.) children realize that a ball of clay squeezed into a long, thin rope can become a ball again; also, 5+3=8 & 3+5=8

Least Restrictive Environment

the setting that is most similar to that of children without special needs -only when most beneficial

Which of the following is a long term outcome associated with childhood obesity ?

Being overweight as an adult

Reading: Stage 0

Birth-first grade: children learn the prerequisites for reading, including letter identification, recognition of familiar words, and perhaps writing their name

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Preconventional (stages 1&2): people follow ridged rules based on punishments or rewards Conventional (stages 3&4): people approach moral problems as good, responsible members of society Postconventional (stages 5&6): invoke universal moral principles that are considered broader than the rules of their particular society -accounts for moral development of judgment but not behavior -Langley based on data from males

Piaget Stages

Preschool: pre-operational stage - largely egocentric and lack the ability to use operations (organized, formal, logical mental processes. Middle Childhood: concrete operational stage (7-12yrs) - applies to logical operations to concrete problems.

As children develop a better self understanding in middle childhood, they begin to view themselves less in terms of physical attributes and more in terms of their _______

Psychological traits

dominance hiarchy

Ranking that represent the relative social power of those in a group -member so higher status can safely question and oppose those lower in the hierarchy -boys tend to be concerned with their place in the dominance hierarchy and they attempt to maintain and improve their status. This makes for a style of play known as restrictive (interactions are interrupted when a boy feels his status is challenged).

Binet's intelligence test

Reasonable predictions of school performance, but do not provide useful information for other attributes like social skills or personality traits

Fluid intelligence

Reflects the ability to solve and reason about novel problems -ex.) a student asked to group a series of letters according to some criterion or to remember a set of numbers

whole language approach

Regards reading as a natural process, similar to the acquisition of oral language. According to this view children learn to read through authentic writing, such as sentences, stories, poems, lists, and charts. Rather than sounding out the words , children make guesses about the meaning of the word based on the context.

Self esteem

An individuals overall and specific positive and negative self-evaluation. More emotionally oriented *self concept reflects beliefs and cognition about the self -during middle childhood self esteem becomes increasingly differentiated. -usually it is high until age 12 when it declines primarily because of school changes -the best way to break low self esteem is through authoritative childrearing style -racial groups that routinely experience prejudice and discrimination affects self-esteem

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABC-II)

An intelligence test that measures children's ability to integrate different stimuli simultaneously and to use sequential thinking -special virtue is its flexibility

Metamemory

An understanding about the processes that underlie memory, which emerges and improves during middle childhood School-age children understand memory in more sophisticated ways as they increasingly engage in control strategies - intentionally used tactics to improve cognitive processing. -ex.) children understand that rehearsal, the religion of information, improves memory, and they increasingly make use of this strategy.

Meta linguistic awareness

An understanding of one's own use of language -helps children's comprehension when information is fuzzy or incomplete Ex.) preschoolers do not ask for clarification but ages 7-8 do.

Kohlberg Moral Development: Stage 4

Authority and social-order-maintains mortality: people believe that only society, not individuals, can determine what is right. Obeying society's rules is right in itself

Reading: Stage 4

Children are able to read and process information about that reflects multiple points of view. Permits children to develop a far more sophisticated understanding of material

self concepts in middle childhood

Children begin to view themselves less in terms of external, physical attributes and more in terms of psychological traits - their views of themselves become more complex -ex.) 6yr old describes herself as a fast runner, 11yr old describes herself as smart and friendly Self-concepts become personal and academic spheres

Information processing approach in middle childhood

Children handle information with increasing sophistication. -memory

Multigenerational families

Children, parents, and grandparents live together -can make a rich living experience for children, but there is also the potential for conflict if layers of adults act as disciplinarians without coordinating what they do. -this is greater in African American families

According to triarchic theory of intelligence, the three aspects of information processing are

Componential, experimental, and contextual

Moral domain theory

Elliot Turiel: argues that children distinguish between the dome and of social conventional reasoning and moral reasoning. -social conventional: the focus is on rules that have been established by society such as eating mashed potatoes with a fork or asking to be excused after eating -moral reasoning: focuses on issues of fairness, justice, the rights of others, and avoidance of harm to others.

Common causes of obesity

Genetic factors, lack of physical activity, unhealthy eating patterns, combination of these factors -only in rare conditions is being overweight caused by a medical condition such as a hormonal problem.

Gilligan: Stage 2

Goodness as self-sacrifice -now older, the same girl may believe that to be a good friend, she must play the games her friend chooses, even if she herself doesn't like them

Group care: orphanages in the 21st century

Group homes or residential treatment: typically house a relatively small number of children whose parents are no longer able to care for them adequately -the number of foster care increased by more than 50% -adoption is not an option for most of these children

Decentering

The ability to take multiple aspects of a stimulation into account -ability gained in the concrete operational stage because they are less egocentric

Chronological of physical age

The actual age of the child taking the intelligence test

Intelligence

The capacity to understand the world, think with rationality, and use resources effectively when faced with challenged

Social competence

The collection of social skills that permit individuals to perform successfully in social setting -popular children are high in social competence

Over-nutrition

The intake of too many calories. -weight concerns in 6 year old girls

Intonation

Tone of voice -school-age children have difficulty decoding sentences