Chapter 5 Psychology

What Is Meditation?

A variety of mental exercises that alter the normal flow of consciousness: Promotes relaxation Reduces physiological arousal-Numerous studies find that meditation is effective in promoting relaxation and reducing physiological arousal (Kelly, 2008). Accomplished meditators exhibit high-amplitude alpha waves, low-amplitude theta waves, reduced oxygen consumption, and slowed heart rate while meditating—all indicators of a deeply relaxed, yet alert, state (Lomas et al., 2015). During meditation, the hypothalamus—which is the brain's control center of the autonomic nervous system—reduces the sympathetic response while increasing the parasympathetic response; the result is relaxation. Simultaneously, meditation also engages brain areas responsible for higher-order thinking.

Altered States of Consciousness

Altered State of Consciousness-An awareness of oneself and one's environment that is noticeably different from the normal state of consciousness. Here are three examples: Hypnosis-A psychological state of altered attention and awareness in which a person is unusually receptive to suggestions. Meditation-A practice of intentional contemplation that alters the normal flow of consciousness. Increased activity in the frontal lobes. Drugs

Blind-sight awareness and other information

Blight-sight awareness-is where a person can respond to stimuli without consciously experiencing that stimulus. Without being consciously aware of that physical stimulus. Test with actual blind individuals and asked them to walk down a hallway (there's stuff in the hallway they can run into and tell the participants that the hallway is clear). Yet they are able to avoid the physical stimuli and don't run into it. A similar test has been done with seeing people who are partially blinded for a time and they are able to identify what object they are shown. Other information-In book there are pictures of healthy peoples brains vs patience's who are in comas. Had the conscience individual imagine they were playing tennis and walking through their homes and took brain images. They did the same thing with unconscious (coma) patiences and told them to imagine the same thing and they found same parts of the brain active in coma patience as you do with conscious people. Older adults wake up 12 times or so during the night. Youngster are getting the best sleep. 8/10 Dreams are about negative things young men 1/10 dreams vs young women 1/30 dreams are sexual. Dreams often incorporate events from the previous day. Dream about things that happen very recently. Freud's wish fulfillment of dreams. There's a phenomena called social-jet lag. Think how you stay up later on the weekends vs weekdays. Body suffers from social jet lag because of not getting the same amount of sleep. It wasn't until the 1930s-1940s happened to connect an electroencephalograph machine to the brains of sleeping individuals and they found out that there are different stages of sleep. The different stages are characterized by the different kinds of brain wave activity. The 4th stage of sleep is REM Sleep.

Inhalants

Chemicals whose vapors can be breathed in to produce a mind-altering effect. Solvents-(such as gasoline and glue) Aerosols-(such as deodorant and hair sprays) Gases-(such as nitrous oxide found in whipping cream and butane lighters) Nitrates-(used for heart patients)

Daily Body Rhythms Regulate Our Activities

Circadian rhythms-Internally generated behavior and physiological changes that occur on a daily basis. Melatonin-A hormone produced by the pineal gland that induces drowsiness. A small area of the hypothalamus known as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and the hormone melatonin, which is produced by the pineal gland, appear to be crucial in readjusting the body's sleep-wake cycle (Bai et al., 2008; Blum et al., 2012). Suprachiasmatic nuceus (SCN)-that's important in sleep and its light sensitive.

Chapter Summary

Consciousness is your awareness of yourself and your environment. Sleep, an altered state of consciousness, is characterized by minimal movement and responsiveness. There are a wide variety of altered states of consciousness, such as those induced by hypnosis, meditation, and drugs.

Critical Thinking

Does listening to music while studying have a positive or negative impact on learning? End-of-life-dreams are dreams experienced near the end of life that often provide a profound meaning and source of comfort to the dying. (Today, it is estimated that more than half of all conscious dying people have profound end-of-life dreams that are a source of personal comfort). Which of the four dream theories might provide the best explanation for end-of-life dreams? Should statements made under hypnosis be allowed in a court of law? Should marijuana be legalized? What about other psychoactive drugs?

Dream theories from lecture videos and criticisms

Freud's Wish fulfillment theory of dreams Below are the three parts of the personality. Id-An unconscious part of the mind that contains our sexual and aggressive drives and it operates on the pleasure principle-The process by which the id seeks to immediately satisfy whatever desire is currently active. (When we're asleep the Id gets to rule.) Ego-The part of our minds that includes our consciousness and that balances the demands of the id, the superego, and reality. It is guided by the reality principle-The process by which the ego seeks to delay gratification of id desires until appropriate outlets and situations can be found. Superego-The part of our minds that includes our conscience and counterbalances the more primitive demands of the id. (Think of it as a conscience) (Weakened when we go to sleep but strong enough to disguise the wishes from the Id from the ego.) Latent content-The true meaning of the dream that is concealed from the dreamer through the symbols that make up the manifest dream content. (What the dream really is about) Manifest content-The dream that is remembered by the dreamer. (What the superego says the dream is about) Information Processing theory of dreams States dreams help us sort out the days events, help organize events of the day. Help to consolidate our long term memories. Study done that out of two groups, one group of people give information go to sleep just like normal. The other group given the same information are just deprived of REM sleep, then memory consolidation doesn't occur as well (don't remember the material as well). (No meaning in our dreams just logical functional purposes) Physiological function of dreams theory We need this brain stimulation during sleep to preserve/develop our neural pathways. When you have newborn infants they spend 18 hours a day asleep and out of the 18 hours a day they spend sleep they spend half of that time in REM sleep. REM sleep helps develop and organize our neural pathways. (No meaning in our dreams just logical functional purposes) Neural Activation theory of dreams REM sleep triggers random neural activation in the brain. Brain stems spread on up to the rest of the brain and finally engulfing the cortex the top portion of the brain. Random activation that is going on and our mind does what it does (trying to make sense of what is going on). No external information coming in when we go to sleep but we have neural activity when we enter REM sleep and so the brain tries to organize that information in some way. Random facts and activities are put into one story (accounts for how bizarre our dreams can be). Thinking about something a lot and those neurons are a bit more primed (more likely to be activated) (Perhaps some meaning the dream). Cognitive development theory of dreams The content of our dreams reflects our current level of cognitive development. So whatever we're dealing with in life at the developmental stage we're in, that's what our dreams are about. The criticisms of dream theories The theory you come up with needs to apply to all mammals sleep and all have REM sleep and dream. Criticisms of Freuds theory of dreams-You'd have to say all mammals have that. NON SCIENTIFIC/ NO SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE. Explain for one mammal that dreams needs to explain for all animals that dream. (DOES EXPLAIN REPETITIVE DREAMS, BECAUSE WE HAVEN'T SOLVED THE UNDERLYING ISSUE) Criticisms of Information Processing-Doesn't explain why we dream of things that hadn't happened that day and why we dream about events from long ago. Why we dream about things we never experienced. Doesn't explain why we have repetitive dreams. Criticisms of Physiological function-some of the same criticisms as the information processing. Can't explain why we have meaningful dreams or repetitive dreams. Criticisms of Neural Activation-Makes some sense with the bizarre illogical dreams, what about those repetitive or meaningful dreams? Criticisms of Cognitive development-Why would I dream about something that happened when I was a child?

Consciousness May Provide Us with Survival Advantages

Here are two possibilities: Planning for future activities-According to the evolutionary principle of natural selection (see Chapter 1, Section 1.2e), members of a species with inborn traits most adaptive for survival in their environment will produce more offspring; as a result, their numbers will increase in frequency in the population. What advantage might the emergence of consciousness have given to our ancestors? One possibility is that consciousness provided our ancestors with a mental representation of the world that allowed them to more effectively plan future activities (Trupp, 2006). That is, by mentally manipulating events and reflecting on possible behavioral choices before acting, our ancestors were able to greatly reduce the sort of aimless and impulsive behavior that is likely to cause death. Another related explanation is that consciousness may have evolved as a means of categorizing and making sense of primitive emotions (Humphrey, 1992). According to this perspective, each of the primitive emotions came to be associated with a different state of consciousness, and, as a result, these states of consciousness provided our ancestors with information that aided their survival. For instance, the negative emotions caused by a snakebite or a fall from a tree became associated with a specific state of consciousness that led our ancestors to avoid similar situations in the future, thus lowering injury and death. Similarly, the positive emotions resulting from eating, drinking, and having sex became associated with states of consciousness that led our ancestors to seek out similar situations, which again benefited them. Although both explanations sound plausible, we currently have no way of knowing whether they accurately account for the emergence of consciousness. Categorize and make sense of emotions

Sleep Disorders

In REM sleep there is a phenomena called sleep paralysis. The brain stem blocks certain message so we don't act out our dreams. REM behavior disorder (is a sleep disorder) however those messages get through. Most Americans are sleep deprived symptoms related to are as follows: Fatigue, irritability, tired, lack of concentration, hard to consolidate information into long term memory, not as productive, obesity, depression, joint pain, suppression of immune system, more accident prone, insomnia (can't get or stay asleep) Narcolepsy, sleep apnea (stops breathing while they are asleep more associated with obesity and more so in men) Night terrors, sleep walking, and talking occur in stage 3 of NREM

Hypnosis Has Been Practiced for Thousands of Years

It is a psychological state of altered attention and awareness. Characteristic features-Enriched fantasy: The hypnotized person can readily imagine situations dissociated from reality. Cognitive passivity: Instead of planning actions, the hypnotized person waits for the hypnotist to suggest thoughts or actions. Hyperselective attention: The hypnotized person will focus attention on the hypnotist's voice and ignore other stimuli. Even pain that a person would find unbearable during their normal waking state can be tolerated through the hypnotically induced focused attention. Reduced reality testing: The hypnotized person tends to uncritically accept hallucinated experiences suggested by the hypnotist. Posthypnotic amnesia: When instructed by the hypnotist, the hypnotized person will often forget all or most of what occurred during the hypnotic session. These memories are restored when the hypnotist gives a prearranged signal. Hypnotically induced amnesia does not appear to be due to deliberate thought suppression on the part of the hypnotized person. Common misconceptions-Hypnotized people can be forced to violate their moral values. There is no evidence that hypnosis causes people to act against their will. Memory is more accurate under hypnosis. Although hypnosis may help people to recall forgotten events, it often results in people recalling events that never happened. While hypnotized, people are much stronger than normal. Hypnosis has no effect on strength. Hypnosis acts like a truth serum, compelling people to avoid deception. Hypnotized people can lie and keep secrets if they so desire. Hypnotized people can be age-regressed, thus allowing them to relive childhood experiences. Although hypnotized people may believe they have regressed to an earlier age, they typically display cognitive abilities far beyond those of a child. Individual differences-People differ in their hypnotizability, which is the degree to which they can enter a deep hypnotic state (Carvalho et al., 2008; Hilgard, 1965). Individuals who are highly hypnotizable have the ability to concentrate totally on material outside them and to become absorbed in imaginative activities (Kirsch & Braffman, 2001). Children are the most hypnotizable individuals, which is not surprising, given the fact that being able to engage freely in fantasy is an important predictor of hypnotizability. Although the ability to suspend ordinary reality facilitates entrance into the hypnotic state, highly hypnotizable people are not more gullible or more conforming than their less hypnotizable counterparts. Among adults, about 10% cannot be hypnotized at all, approximately 15% are very susceptible, and the rest fall somewhere in between (Barber, 2000). Research also indicates that hypnotizability is a fairly stable trait during adulthood (Piccione et al., 1989).

What Is Consciousness?

It is the awareness of yourself and your environment: Subjectivity-For example, by simultaneously measuring people's brain activity and obtaining self-reports from them, psychologists try to identify different states of consciousness. Selective attention-Focused awareness on a single stimulus to the exclusion of all others. Divided attention-Attention that is split and simultaneously focused on different stimuli. The stream of consciousness-Indeed, over 100 years ago, William James (1890) described this continuous, altering flow of thoughts, feelings, and sensations as being a stream of consciousness. Daydreaming-A relatively passive state of waking consciousness that involves turning attention away from external stimuli to internal thoughts and imaginary situations. About 4% of the adult population daydream so much that they are called fantasy-prone personalities (Cuper & Lynch, 2008). Fantasy-prone personalities-A person who has regular, vivid fantasies and who sometimes cannot separate fantasy from reality. Levels of consciousness-The final defining characteristic of consciousness is that it exists on many levels. Mental events that you are currently aware of are said to exist at the conscious level. For example, the sensations you feel when you squeeze your arm are at your conscious level of awareness. As already discussed, consciousness ebbs and flows. Daydreaming is a form of consciousness when we are less alert and present than normal. In contrast, mindfulness is a heightened state of awareness of the present moment (Hill & Updegraff, 2012). Mindfulness-A heightened state of awareness of the present moment.

There Are Distinct Stages of Sleep

NREM sleep-Non-rapid eye movement sleep; which is a relatively inactive phase in the sleep cycle (quiet sleep) Dreams don't usually occur in NREM stages of sleep. In NREM sleep stage 3 your body is recovering from the day's activities. Sleep walking, night terrors, and sleep talking can occur in this stage. If we do dream it isn't as vivid (don't feel as real) as the ones we have in REM sleep. Early on in the night you spend more time in NREM sleep stage 3. High amplitude slow moving brain activity/waves occur here. The pituitary releases growth hormone. Stage 1 - Theta waves-Irregular, low-amplitude brain waves associated with stage 1 sleep. Stage 2 - sleep spindles-Bursts of rapid, rhythmic electrical activity in the brain characteristic of stage 2 sleep. Stage 3 - slow-wave sleep-in which your brain waves become higher in amplitude and slower in frequency. Stage 4 - Delta waves-Slow, high-amplitude brain waves most typical of stage 4 deep sleep. Not coincidentally, the amount of stage 4 slow-wave sleep decreases dramatically over the human life span, dipping from almost 20% of sleep time in young adulthood to only about 3% by midlife (Ohayon et al., 2004). Because growth hormones are only secreted during slow-wave sleep, a reduction in this form of sleep with age lowers the levels of these hormones in the body, resulting in loss of muscle tone, increased body fat, thinning of the skin, memory loss, and diminished sexual desire. REM sleep-A relatively active phase in the sleep cycle, characterized by rapid eye movements, in which dreaming occurs. (Active sleep) REM sleep-on neurons-What appear to be responsible for creating REM sleep are specialized neurons located in the pons at the base of the hindbrain, called REM sleep-on neurons. These neurons become very active during the REM sleep phase. You go through about four or five sleep cycles during the night, each lasting about 90 minutes. As also depicted in Figure 5-5, after the first few sleep cycles, you do not usually pass through all the sleep stages and REM sleep becomes longer in duration during each subsequent sleep cycle.

When Do Dreams Occur?

Often during REM sleep and if you wake up during the REM cycle you remember the dream you were just having. You have a REM cycle every 90 minutes and with each new cycle comes a new dream and will get slightly longer. As the night progresses usually 8 hours based on the chart you spend more time in Rem Sleep than in NREM sleep stage 3. If you wake up during the REM cycle you remember the dream you were just having. Paradoxical sleep-REM sleep can be called Paradoxical sleep. When you look at the brain waves of an awake person, the look somewhat similar to the ones you see in a person during REM sleep. The brain is more active enough though you're asleep. (HENCE THE NAME PARADOXICAL SLEEP). REM rebound-if you don't sleep long enough, then the next time you sleep you'll spend longer time in REM sleep.

Hallucinogens

Psychoactive drugs that distort perception and generate sensory images without any external stimulation. Many hallucinogenic drugs are naturally derived from plants, such as the peyote cactus that contains mescaline or the Mexican mushroom that contains psilocybin (Pollan, 2018). Once thought to mimic psychotic states of mind, careful analysis indicates that these drugs do not produce the same behavioral patterns observed in people suffering from psychotic episodes. LSD-A synthesized chemical that is the most potent of the hallucinogens; induces hallucinations, distortions, and a blending of sensory experiences. Marijuana-A mild hallucinogen derived from the leafy material of the hemp, or Cannabis, plant; often induces a sense of giddiness or euphoria, as well as heightened sensitivity to various stimuli. THC-The major psychoactive ingredient in marijuana.

Depressants

Psychoactive drugs that slow down—or depress—the nervous system and decrease mental and physical activity. Alcohol and Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD)-A chronic disease characterized by uncontrolled drinking and preoccupation with alcohol. In the United States, 70% of all adults consume alcohol at least occasionally. Of those adults, over 55 million frequently drink in excess, thus putting their health at risk, and about 14 million people in the US have a severe alcohol use disorder (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2018). Barbiturates and tranquilizers-Powerful depressants that reduce anxiety and promote sleep, and in milder doses produce relaxation, slight euphoria, and reduced inhibitions. The opiates (e.g., opium, morphine, heroin)-A category of depressant drugs, including opium, morphine, and heroin, that depress the nervous system, temporarily relieve pain, and produce a relaxed, dreamlike state.

Stimulants

Psychoactive drugs that speed up—or stimulate—the nervous system and increase mental and physical activity. -Caffeine and nicotine-speeds up bodily functions and reduce appetite (due to increased blood sugar), often used to stay awake, lose weight, enhance athletic performance, or elevate mood. stimulates the cerebral cortex, which causes an increase in mental alertness and wakefulness (Lyvers et al., 2004). Increased alertness is partly caused by caffeine delaying the onset of boredom from repetitive tasks and enhancing the appeal of novel situations. Inhaled through tobacco smoke, nicotine reaches the brain within seconds. Paradoxically, this also appears to have a calming effect on smokers, often relieving stress. In addition to these effects, nicotine reduces blood flow to the skin, causing a drop in skin temp, which makes blushing less common in smokers than in nonsmokers. Reduced blood flow is probably why the skin of smokers tends to wrinkle and age faster than that of nonsmokers. Nicotine also appears to produce a decrease in hand steadiness and fine motor control. World wide 7 million deaths are recorded because of tobacco use.-Cocaine and amphetamines-Cocaine is one of the more widely abused illegal stimulant drugs (Baker et al., 2004). Natural substance that comes from the leaves of the coca bush from South America. When cocaine is smoked (crack)/sniffed (snorting)/injected directly into bloodstream (mainlining), experience a 15-30-minute "high" & feel energized/excited/happy/talkative/confident. Activates the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system raising body temp/heart rate/breathing/reduced desire for food/sleep. Effects on the brain-the drug blocks the repackaging of dopamine/norepinephrine neurotransmitters into the synaptic vesicles of the axon's terminal buttons, so the neurotransmitters remain in the synaptic cleft longer than normal (Bubar et al., 2003). These neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers for feelings of pleasure/heightened wakefulness, their extended presence in the synaptic cleft sets in motion a series of events that result in the cocaine high. Amphetamines activate the sympathetic nervous system and increase dopamine/norepinephrine activity, producing many cocaine-like effects. Synthetic stimulants have long been used to lose weight/stay awake for extended time periods. Also increase alertness/response speed. As a treatment for weight loss, amphetamine users quickly develop a tolerance to the appetite-suppressing effects of the drug, requiring increasingly higher doses to maintain these effects. High dosage can cause insomnia/anxiety/heart problems/even brain damage (Mintzer & Griffiths, 2003). Habitual amphetamine and cocaine users develop stimulant-induced psychosis (Schizophrenic-like symptoms that can occur following prolonged and excessive use of cocaine and amphetamines). One of the primary symptoms of stimulant-induced psychosis is hallucinations. Sensation of these "cocaine bugs" is caused by the cocaine-induced spontaneous firing of sensory neurons. Other symptoms of stimulant-induced psychosis are depression/paranoia/teeth grinding/ repetitive behaviors.-Ecstasy and Ritalin-Popular among adolescents and young adults as an alternative to cocaine and amphetamines is "ecstasy," or MDMA, short for methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Taken as a pill, MDMA primarily affects the brain cells that produce serotonin, a neurotransmitter that's the body's primary regulator of mood. Massive release of serotonin by these cells may be responsible for the feelings of blissfulness/greater closeness to others that ecstasy users often experience, as well as for increases in body temp/heart rate/blood pressure (Kamilar-Britt & Bedi, 2015). Blocks serotonin reuptake, amplifying and extending serotonin's effects (Braun, 2001). Not physically addictive, still dangerous (Fernandez-Castillo et al., 2012). Several doses over a few hours, the body's natural ability to control its temp can be severely impaired. Studies also raise the possibility that MDMA use can cause permanent damage to the axons of the serotonin-containing brain cells, resulting in memory and concentration problems (Aamodt & Wang, 2008). Ritalin (methylphenidate), a stimulant drug prescribed to treat (ADHD) in children. Effective in treating the disorder, it decreases distractibility and improves concentration. Some adults—college students—who don't have the disorder ingest the drug to increase concentration and productivity while working/studying for exams (Jasinski et al., 2008). Developing a tolerance for the drug more quickly than do those with ADHD and experience withdrawal symptoms when the dosage is reduced.

Psychoactive Drug Use Can Lead to Dependence

Psychoactive drugs-Chemicals that modify mental processes and behavior. Drug abuse-Persistence in drug use even when impaired behavior or social functioning results. Drug tolerance-An effect of drug abuse in which greater amounts of the drug are necessary to produce the same effect once produced by a smaller dose.

Dream Theories

Psychoanalytic-The most famous dream theory in psychology is that proposed by Sigmund Freud (1900). Psychoanalytic dream theory asserts that dreams are disguised wishes originating in the unconscious. Off-line-A theory that the cognitive process of dreaming consolidates and stores information gathered during the day, thus allowing us to maintain a smaller and more efficient brain. Problem-solving-According to Rosalind Cartwright's (1977, 1989) theory that dreaming provides the opportunity to creatively solve everyday problems because dreams are not hampered by logic or realism. Activation-synthesis-J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley argue that dreaming has no particular significance other than as a by-product of brain activity. A theory that dreaming is a by-product of random brain activity, which the forebrain weaves into a somewhat logical story. (Austrian physician Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815) used hypnosis—which he called animal magnetism—to restore the balance of supposed magnetic fluid in people's bodies, thus curing them of disease.)

Is Hypnosis an AlteredState?

Role-playing explanation-One such "nonstate" theory proposes that the hypnotized person is simply playing a role (Barber, 1979). Maintains that hypnosis is a normal waking state in which suggestible people behave as they think hypnotized people are supposed to behave. Neodissociation theory-Ernest Hilgard proposed his theory that hypnotized people enter an altered state in which two streams of consciousness operate simultaneously, one actively responding to suggestions and the other passively observing what is going on.

What Is Sleep?

Sleep is an altered state of consciousness: Minimal physical movement Minimal responsiveness to one's environment

How Do Sleep Habits Vary?

Three types of differences: Individual-How much sleep you need partly depends on your age. The amount of time spent sleeping declines throughout the life cycle. Newborns sleep approximately 16 hours; children average between 9 and 12 hours; adolescents average about 7 hours. Newborns and young children have the highest percentage of REM sleep, and many sleep experts believe that the heightened brain activity during REM sleep promotes the development of new neural pathways. Morning people wake up early, with a good deal of energy and alertness, but are ready to retire before 10:00 p.m. Night people, on the other hand, stay up much later in the evening and have a hard time getting up early in the morning (Goel, 2011; Thoman, 1999). About 25% of us are night people, 25% are morning people, and the remaining 50% fall somewhere between these two extremes. Morning people's body temperatures quickly rise upon awakening and remain high until about 7:30 p.m. The body temperature of night people, in contrast, rises much more gradually when they wake, peaks at midday, and begins dropping only late in the evening. Not surprisingly, in one study, college students identified as morning people obtained better grades in early-morning classes than in evening classes. Cultural-For example, in tropical cultures, midday naps—or siestas—are common because they allow people to avoid strenuous activity during the hottest time of the day. Interestingly, as these "siesta cultures" industrialize, they abandon this practice (Kribbs, 1993). Historical-Prior to industrialization, nighttime slumber for many was regularly interrupted by frigid temperatures, dampness, bed bugs, and the discomfort of beds themselves. Due to such adverse conditions, most people regularly rose from their beds during the night for an hour or so in "quiet wakefulness" to warm themselves, engage in "bug hunts," contemplate a dream, or even visit nearby neighbors who had also arisen during the night. This middle-of-the-night waking was highly valued in medieval Europe as a time of calm relaxation. Yet, as sleeping conditions improved, uninterrupted sleep became much more commonplace, especially among the middle- and upper-class members of society (Ekirch, 2005). Thus, the pattern of seamless slumber that we consider normal today is really a fairly recent historical phenomenon—a product of modern culture.

What Factors Influence Drug Use?

Two important factors: Biological-For example, the shared incidence of alcoholism is more common among identical twins than among fraternal twins. Similarly, twin studies in the United States and Scandinavia indicate a genetic contribution not only to risks of smoking and marijuana use but also to resistance to using these substances (Kendler et al., 2002). These findings suggest that the closer the genetic makeup between people, the more similar the drug use pattern (Xuei et al., 2008). Sociological-In regards to personal or social factors, although personality problems do not predict drug use in adolescents, a teenager's degree of rebellion against parents and societal norms is a good predictor of drug use. Those teens who are religious, attend school regularly and get good grades, have good relationships with their parents, and do not break the law are least likely to drink alcohol and use other drugs (Wills et al., 2003). Cultural factors-The poor and the less educated are more likely to abuse drugs than are people who have more money and education.

Why Do We Sleep?

Two theories: Restorative theory of sleep-A theory that sleep allows the body to restore itself following the rigors of daily activity. Adaptive theory of sleep-A theory that sleep prevents us from moving about and being injured during a time of the day in which our bodies are not well adapted. Why do we sleep reasons Evolution was not adaptive to walk around at night because we're daytime creatures. (as a protective role) Restore and repair damaged neurons. Helps strengthen neuron pathways/connections Help promote creative problem solving. The pituitary produces growth hormones to help muscles recover from the days activities.

Blood Alcohol Levels and Their Behavioral Effects

•.05% Lowered alertness, impaired judgment, release of inhibitions •.10% Slowed reaction time, impaired motor function, less caution •.15% Large, consistent increases in reaction time •.20% Marked depression in sensory and motor capability •.25% Severe motor disturbance, impairment of sensory perceptions •.30% In a stupor but still conscious, no comprehension of surrounding events •.35% Surgical anesthesia, minimal level to cause death •.40% Lethal dose for half of all adults