Chapter 5: Syntax

noun phrase (NP)

- has a noun as its head - typically subject or object - can be replaced by a pronoun ex. [Houses] are expensive, [Bill Gates] is rich, [She] writes

verb phrase (VP)

- has a verb as its head - broadly similar to predicate ex. Lou [fell], Lou [lost the race], Lou [won a prize for his success in the tournament]

information questions

- the information that is sought - the questioned constituent - is represented by a WH word can echo the statement form ex. He's looking for [who]? or can use WH movement, which fronts the WH-word to a position before the subject ex. [Who] was she looking for today? (She was looking for who today?)

yes/no question formation

require moving the auxiliary verb of a statement to a position before the subject NP ex. Suze [will] earn a fair wage. ex. [Will] Suze earn a fair wage? NP AUX VP -> AUX NP VP

grammatical relation

the syntactic relationship in a clause between an NP and the predicate - indicate the syntactic role that an NP plays in its clause (subject, direct object, indirect object, oblique, possessor)

substitution

when a pro-form can substitute for a string of words in a sentence, that string of words is a constituent

active and passive sentences

- put the focus on different NPs

syntactic operations

- structure dependent and affect meaning - the difference between a statement and a question (Y/N questions) - not fronting the questioned constituent means the speaker didn't hear something or wants to express surprise - fronting it makes a regular information question - active and passive sentences put the focus on different NPs

movement

any group of words that can be moved in a syntactic operation functions as a unit and is a constituent

embedded clauses

clauses can be embedded as a constituent of another clause (matrix clause) ex. Harry said [he saw a ghost]. (it) ex. Suze said [Lou cried]. (that) ex. [That Jen won the marathon] surprised Sheila. (it)

Parsers

computer programs that analyze a string of words for constituent structures - labels the lexical categories - then applies syntactic rules to the string of words - grammar checkers rely on relatively simple parsers

passive -> active sentences

interchange the subject NP and the direct object NP ex. The judge fined the juggler. ex. The juggler was fined by the judge.

surface structure

linear string of words in a sentence

testing constituency (3)

movement, substitution, coordination

intransitive verbs

no direct object (cry, laugh)

coordination

only constituents of the same kind can be conjoined by a coordinator such as 'and' and 'or'

subordinator

- a word that introduces an embedded clause - would not occur if the cause stood alone as an independent sentence - helps to identify embedded clause' function in the sentence - not always required ex. Suze said *that* [Lou cried].

subject

NP that is immediately dominated by the S S / \ [NP] [VP] / \ V [NP] = direct object

major constituents of sentences

NP, VP

oblique

NPs that are not subject, object, or indirect object (object of a preposition) ex. the vampire pointed to [his teeth]

phrase-structure expansions

S -> NP + VP NP -> (Det) (A) N (PP) VP -> V (NP) (PP) PP -> PREP (NP)

relative clauses

a clause embedded within an NP ex. I gave your address [to my cousin (who lives in Dublin)]. ex. The dean criticized [the prof (who flunked me)].

constituency

sentences consist of organized constituents - groups of words that serve as structural units - move as units when a sentence is altered (ex. the coach blames the referee, the referee was blamed by the coach) - tree diagrams (graphical representation)

COMP node

serves as a kind of placeholder and magnet for relative pronouns (that, which, who) - represented by a dash- ex. There's the pothole [that] I warned you about-. ex. The fans [who]- braved the weather paid a price.

underlying structure

shows more about sentences than what is represented in the surface structure - perceive or understand constituents that are unexpressed in the linear string ex. Lisa won a prize, but Larry didn't (win a prize).

transitive verbs

take direct objects (make, find, buy)

direct object

the NP that is immediately dominated by the VP S / \ [NP] [VP] / \ V [NP] = direct object

syntax

the part of grammar that governs the form by which language users make statements, ask questions, give directives, and so on - addresses the structure of sentences and their structural and functional relationships to one another