Chapter 7 and 8 Test Review

Euthyphro Dilemma

"Is the pious loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?"

Longfellow

"Morality without religion is only a kind of dead reckoning-- an endeavor to find our place on a cloudy sea by measuring the distance we have run, but without any observation of heavenly bodies." Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Essentially saying that ethics without religion is pointless...

Natural Law ethics

- A view that humans can determine moral principles by studying the natural world - Based on religious belief that God has organized the world in specific ways - OR the belief that nature itself shows us what is "natural" and, hence, what is in our own best interests to do or not to do - Virtue ethics depends on natural law ethics - Thomas Aquinas Natural Law Theory - Thomas Aquinas: Preservation of life Perpetuation of species Orderly society Education of the young Pursuit of knowledge Natural inclinations combined with God-given reason=right Eternal Law Natural Law Human Law

Hume's guillotine

A criticism, made by David Hume, that it is not possible to deduce moral judgment (what ought to be) from naturalistic observations (what is).

Durkheim

According to him, the first ethics known to humans were based on religion. If a God (or gods) exist, then there is a starting point to ethical thinking. With this thinking, if we ask why a particular thing is right or wrong, the bottom line would be, "because that is what God says it is."

Modus vivendi

An arrangement or agreement allowing conflicting parties to coexist peacefully, either indefinitely or until a final settlement is reached. Finding compromise or a middle ground.

Agape ethics

Being the greek word for love or chartbility. Agapeistic ethics focuses on the two commandments that are found in the bible in matthew 22: Love the lord your god, and love your neighbour as yourself. LOVE

Utilitarianism

Belief that actions should be valued according to their usefulness in meeting the best interests of the greatest number of people

Consequentialism

Belief that the morality of an action is to be judged solely by its consequences. If the consequence after the action made is good, then the action was good. However, the outcome of the action was bad, then so was the action.

Divine Command Ethics

Deontological approach in which the main principles are not given by "pure reason" but rather by "revelation" from a divine being(s) either through scripture, prophets, or a mystic experience

Social Darwinism

Describe the idea that humans, like animals and plants, compete in a struggle for existence in which natural selection results in "survival of the fittest."

Deontology

Duty based ethics. Theory that there exists a universal law of morality that all individuals should obey

Ethics and Morality

Ethics: Moral principles that govern a person's or group's behaviour. It involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behaviour. Morality: Principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behaviour.

Excusing conditions

Factors in a situation that may excuse actions we might otherwise regard as immoral. Ignorance: Not knowing, is not one's moral responsibility, unless ignorance was avoidable. Compulsion: If you are forced to do something, and the force involved could not be avoided and was serious, this is an excusing action. Having good reason also counts here. Trying: Trying to do the right thing but unsuccessful in the end, is an excusing condition.

Deontological grounding

Focuses on our duty to do the right thing. This essentially insists that regardless of the consequence, you should always do the moral thing.

Metaethics

Focuses on the status, foundations, and scope of moral values, properties, and words. It asks questions such as: where do our moral principles come from? Are our principles made up as we go along or are they influenced from various societies?

Normative ethics

Focuses on the study of ethical action. Questions arise concerning how one ought to act, morally speaking. For example, what are the principles we use to arrive at moral judgements? Are the consequences of an action what make the action right or wrong, or is it the intention of the action that determined this?

Social relativism

Human beings are rational and political animals, meaning that human beings engage with each other in society, and we are social animals

Eugenics

Is the study of how to control human breeding in which humans try to create the "master race." Control human breeding, match up people "who are superior" so they can create a superior race.

Altruism

Is the tendency of members of a species to have selfless concern for the well-being of others

Rationalistic grounding

Is to ground ethics in reason. This is looking at the basis of the mathematical rules of reason. If the rules of reason and logic could show us what morality really is than this would likely give us a rule or rules in which all rational people would be bound to accept.

Value laden language

Language that assumes a moral judgement. For example, good or bad, right or wrong, valuable or unvalued

Naturalistic grounding

Looking at the natural world in means of grounding ethics

Applied Ethics

More practical side of ethical philosophy. It focuses on how we can apply ethical judgment to various problems such as abortion or the justice system. It also helps us resolve real-world dilemmas and issues.

Incommensurable pluralism

Not only do social groups disagree about the most basic moral principles, but also that some of their basic moral principles cannot be reconciled with each other. Ex: The belief that men and women are equal cannot be reconciled with the belief that women are made to serve men.

Subjective and objective ethics

Objective: Is to say that it is the result of some features of reality. This implies that an ethical judgment, such as right and wrong is true whether we believe it is or not. Subjective: Is to say that whether it is really right or wrong depends on what a particular person or group of people has decided about it.

Kant

One thing in the universe that is free is the human will. It is therefore good in itself. This is the basis of equality. Formulation 1: 1. Always treat a person as an end (person deserves justice and fair treatment) in themselves and never as a means 2. Always act in a matter that your maxim could become a universal law of nature. i.e. everyone could do the action all the time and the world would be okay Formulation 2: 1. Find principle or maxim on which an ethic decision is being made 2. Imagine a world in which the maxim is universal 3. Will this lead to a contradiction 4. If there are any contradictions, do not do the action

Categorical imperative

Part of Kant's Kantian Ethics. It is an unconditional moral obligation that applies to all. Kant believed it to be binding in all circumstances and that it is not dependent on a person's inclination or purpose. Kant had 4 reasons for arriving to this principle: - Find the basic principle or maxim(rule or guideline for living) on which an ethical decision is being made. Example: You can tell lies. - Imagine a possible world in which this maxim is universal. Example: a world in which everyone lies all the time. - Ask yourself, "Will this maxim lead to a contradiction?" Example: since everyone is lying, lying itself will cease to work. There will be no lies because no one will have cause to believe anyone else. This makes lying a self-contradictory act: a liar depends on the general truthfulness of people. - If there are contradictions, then the maxim in immoral (impermissible). If there are no contradictions, then it is moral (permissible). So, if everyone always told the truth, the result might be an odd world, but it would be a world in which there were no self-contradictions or irrationalities. Therefore, telling the truth is moral but lying is not.

Hedonistic calcus

Person who believes that pleasure or happiness is the highest good

Egoistic relativism

Plato discussed human beings as possessing predominant features in what he called the tripartite division of the soul: reason, spirit and appetite - separates us from animals

Situational Ethics

Takes into account the particular context of an act when evaluating it ethically, rather than judging it according to absolute moral standards. Situationally based.

Magic ring

The Ring of Gyges is a story mentioned by the philosopher Plato. In this story the owner of the magic ring is granted with the power to become invisible at will. Through the story of the ring, Republic considers whether an intelligent person would be moral if he did not have to fear being caught and punished for doing injustices. The theory of psychological egoism is illustrated, and this is the view that people are always motivated by self interest. Most people would commit unjust crimes, if they did not have to fear getting caught or punished as a result.

Determinism

The belief that human actions and choices are not self made but are caused by the impact of forces outside of ourselves (a.k.a. SOCIETY).

Libertarianism

The belief that humans should have full freedom in thought and action with minimal government control.

Intuitionism

The belief that principles of morality can be known by intuition rather than reason. This relates to both deontology, because it says that moral principles are in fact real, pre-existing, and binding, as well as to natural law theories, because it holds that through our conscience we can detect what moral principles are. W. David Ross was known for this.

Pragmatism

The belief that the value of a judgement or knowledge is based on how useful it is to us at a given place and time, not on pre-set criteria for morality "Who can possibly know who's right?" Guided by experience, rather than theory or abstractions; matter of fact The ends justify the means (Machiavellian)

Existentialism

The belief that there is no objective or absolute meaning in life and that the meaning of a person's life must be invented or chosen by that person in full awareness of the groundness of existence.

Sociological grounding

The view that we might be able to find a ground for ethics through observing society is related to naturalistic ethics. Examining society, to find out what humans call morality, and then more importantly group these examples society gives us into classes or kinds so we can arrive at conclusions about what makes moral judgements work.

Consequentialist grounding

This suggests that if we know what the right outcome of a choice may be, then it could be agreed that the "moral" thing to do would be whatever would lead most directly to the right outcome.

Virtue ethics

View that moral character is the driving force behind ethical behaviour, rather than rules or consequences. Aristotle believed we became virtuous by virtuous habits. We are social animals who cannot live outside of society

Blackburn

has been led to declare that religion removes the possibility of ethics. He states that since it is God who determines what is right and wrong, then humans simply aren't allowed to question this.