Chapter 7: Memory
Define encoding-specificity principle
The principle that retrieval of information is improved if cues received at the time of recall are consistent with those present at the time of encoding
Define consolidation
The process by which LTM memories become stable in the brain; -neural changes that take place when a memory is formed
Define constructive process
The process of organizing and shaping information during encoding, storage, and retrieval of memories; can lead to error and biases
Define priming
An exposure (often unconscious) to previously stored information that predisposes (or primes) our response to related stimuli
Define implicit/nondeclarative memory
A subsystem within long-term memory that contains memories independent of conscious recall; consists of procedural motor skills, priming, and simple classically conditioned responses
Define semantic memory
A type of explicit/declarative memory; a sub system of long-term memory (LTM) that stores general knowledge; a mental encyclopedia or dictionary
Define flashbulb memory (FBM)
A vivid, -detailed, and near-permanent memory of an emotionally significant moment or event; memory resulting from a form of automatic encoding, storage, and later retrieval
Define repression
According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, a basic coping or defense mechanism that prevents anxiety-provoking thoughts, feelings and memories from reaching consciousness
Define serial-position effect
A characteristic of memory retrieval in which information at the beginning and end of a series is remembered better than material in the middle
Define distributed practice
A learning strategy in which studying or practice is broken up into a number of short sessions over a period of time; also known as spaced repetition
Define long-term potentiation
A long-lasting increase in neural sensitivity; a biological mechanism for learning and memory
Define source amnesia
A memory error caused by forgetting the origin of a previously stored memory; also called source confusion or source misattribution
Define misinformation effect
A memory error resulting from misleading information presented after an event, which alters memories of the event itself
Define elaborative rehearsal
A memory improvement method that makes the information more meaningful, and thereby transfers information from STM into LTM
Define three-stage memory model
A memory model based on the passage of information through three stages: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory; also known as the Atkinson-Shiffrin theory
Define encoding, storage, and retrieval model
A memory model that involves three processes: encoding (getting information in), storage (retaining information for future use), and retrieval (recovering information)
Define retroactive interference
A memory problem that occurs when new information disrupts (interferes with) the recall of old, "retro" information; backward-acting interference
Define proactive interference
A memory problem that occurs when old information disrupts (interferes with) the recall of new information; forward-acting interference
Define chunking
A memory technique involving grouping separate pieces of information into larger, more manageable units (or chunks)
Define working memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory (STM) that emphasizes the active processing of information
Define retrieval cue
A prompt or stimulus that aids recall or retrieval of a stored piece of information from long-term memory (LTM)
Define mnemonic
A strategy device that uses familiar information during the encoding of new information to enhance later recall
Define tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon
A strong, confident feeling of knowing something, while not being able to retrieve it at the moment
Define massed practice
A study technique in which time spent learning is grouped (or massed) into long, unbroken intervals; also called cramming
Define explicit/declarative memory
A subsystem of long-term memory (LTM) that involves conscious, easily described (declared) memories; consists of semantic memories (facts) and episodic memories (personal experiences)
Define episodic memory
A subsystem of long-term memory (LTM) that stores autobiographical events and contexts in which they occurred; a mental diary of a person's life
What type of information is known as echoic memory?
Auditory information
What does the central executive do for the working memory?
Coordinates material phonologically and visuospatially with long-term memory, which helps a food server take customer orders and remember who ordered what
Define levels of processing model
Created by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972) it is a model of memory that is based on a continuum of memory processing ranging from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing leading to improved encoding, storage, and retrieval
What does the visuospatial sketchpad do for the working memory?
Creates and stores visual and spatial information-the mental image of the customers, their food orders, and the layout of plates on their table
What are the four major memory models
Encoding, storage, retrieval (ESR); levels of processing; parallel distributed processing (PDP); three-stage memory
What is the purpose, duration and capacity of short-term memory storage
Holds information temporarily for analysis and retrieves information from LTM, up to 30 seconds without rehearsal, limited to 5-9 items
What is the purpose, duration and capacity of sensory memory storage
Holds sensory information, lasts up to 1/2 second for visual and 2-4 seconds for auditory, large capacity
What is the purpose, duration and capacity of long-term memory storage
Receives and stores information from STM, relatively permanent duration, relatively unlimited capacity
What does the phonological loop do for the working memory?
Stores and mentally repeats the speech-based information form the customers' food order
Define maintenance rehearsal
The act of repeating information over and over to maintain it in short-term memory (STM)
Define encode
The first step of the ESR memory model; process of moving sensory information into memory storage
Define anterograde amnesia
The inability to form new memories; forward-acting amnesia
Define retrograde amnesia
The inability to retrieve information from the past; backward-acting amnesia
Define sensory memory
The initial memory stage, which holds sensory information; its has relatively large capacity, but the duration is only a few seconds
Define memory
The persistence of learning over time; process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved
Define storage
The second step of the ESR memory model; retention of encoded information over time
Define stored
The second step of the ESR memory model; retention of encoded information over time
Define short-term memory (STM)
The sensory memory stage, which temporarily stores sensory information and transmits information to and from long-term memory (LTM); its capacity is limited to 5-9 items, and it has a duration of about 30 seconds; stores a mixture of perceptual analyses
Define parallel distributed processing (PDP) model
The theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in web-like connections among interacting processing units operating simultaneously, rather than sequentially; also known as connectionism
Define long-term memory (LTM)
The third stage of memory, which stores information for long periods of time; the capacity is virtually limitless, and the duration is relatively permanent
Define retrieval
The third step of the ESR memory model; recovery of information from memory storage
Define retrieved
The third step of the ESR memory model; recovery of information from memory storage
What type of information is known as iconic memory?
Visual information
What are the three parts of the working memory?
Visuospatial sketchpad, a phonological loop, and a central executive