Chapter 7: Memory

Define encoding-specificity principle

The principle that retrieval of information is improved if cues received at the time of recall are consistent with those present at the time of encoding

Define consolidation

The process by which LTM memories become stable in the brain; -neural changes that take place when a memory is formed

Define constructive process

The process of organizing and shaping information during encoding, storage, and retrieval of memories; can lead to error and biases

Define priming

An exposure (often unconscious) to previously stored information that predisposes (or primes) our response to related stimuli

Define implicit/nondeclarative memory

A subsystem within long-term memory that contains memories independent of conscious recall; consists of procedural motor skills, priming, and simple classically conditioned responses

Define semantic memory

A type of explicit/declarative memory; a sub system of long-term memory (LTM) that stores general knowledge; a mental encyclopedia or dictionary

Define flashbulb memory (FBM)

A vivid, -detailed, and near-permanent memory of an emotionally significant moment or event; memory resulting from a form of automatic encoding, storage, and later retrieval

Define repression

According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, a basic coping or defense mechanism that prevents anxiety-provoking thoughts, feelings and memories from reaching consciousness

Define serial-position effect

A characteristic of memory retrieval in which information at the beginning and end of a series is remembered better than material in the middle

Define distributed practice

A learning strategy in which studying or practice is broken up into a number of short sessions over a period of time; also known as spaced repetition

Define long-term potentiation

A long-lasting increase in neural sensitivity; a biological mechanism for learning and memory

Define source amnesia

A memory error caused by forgetting the origin of a previously stored memory; also called source confusion or source misattribution

Define misinformation effect

A memory error resulting from misleading information presented after an event, which alters memories of the event itself

Define elaborative rehearsal

A memory improvement method that makes the information more meaningful, and thereby transfers information from STM into LTM

Define three-stage memory model

A memory model based on the passage of information through three stages: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory; also known as the Atkinson-Shiffrin theory

Define encoding, storage, and retrieval model

A memory model that involves three processes: encoding (getting information in), storage (retaining information for future use), and retrieval (recovering information)

Define retroactive interference

A memory problem that occurs when new information disrupts (interferes with) the recall of old, "retro" information; backward-acting interference

Define proactive interference

A memory problem that occurs when old information disrupts (interferes with) the recall of new information; forward-acting interference

Define chunking

A memory technique involving grouping separate pieces of information into larger, more manageable units (or chunks)

Define working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory (STM) that emphasizes the active processing of information

Define retrieval cue

A prompt or stimulus that aids recall or retrieval of a stored piece of information from long-term memory (LTM)

Define mnemonic

A strategy device that uses familiar information during the encoding of new information to enhance later recall

Define tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon

A strong, confident feeling of knowing something, while not being able to retrieve it at the moment

Define massed practice

A study technique in which time spent learning is grouped (or massed) into long, unbroken intervals; also called cramming

Define explicit/declarative memory

A subsystem of long-term memory (LTM) that involves conscious, easily described (declared) memories; consists of semantic memories (facts) and episodic memories (personal experiences)

Define episodic memory

A subsystem of long-term memory (LTM) that stores autobiographical events and contexts in which they occurred; a mental diary of a person's life

What type of information is known as echoic memory?

Auditory information

What does the central executive do for the working memory?

Coordinates material phonologically and visuospatially with long-term memory, which helps a food server take customer orders and remember who ordered what

Define levels of processing model

Created by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972) it is a model of memory that is based on a continuum of memory processing ranging from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing leading to improved encoding, storage, and retrieval

What does the visuospatial sketchpad do for the working memory?

Creates and stores visual and spatial information-the mental image of the customers, their food orders, and the layout of plates on their table

What are the four major memory models

Encoding, storage, retrieval (ESR); levels of processing; parallel distributed processing (PDP); three-stage memory

What is the purpose, duration and capacity of short-term memory storage

Holds information temporarily for analysis and retrieves information from LTM, up to 30 seconds without rehearsal, limited to 5-9 items

What is the purpose, duration and capacity of sensory memory storage

Holds sensory information, lasts up to 1/2 second for visual and 2-4 seconds for auditory, large capacity

What is the purpose, duration and capacity of long-term memory storage

Receives and stores information from STM, relatively permanent duration, relatively unlimited capacity

What does the phonological loop do for the working memory?

Stores and mentally repeats the speech-based information form the customers' food order

Define maintenance rehearsal

The act of repeating information over and over to maintain it in short-term memory (STM)

Define encode

The first step of the ESR memory model; process of moving sensory information into memory storage

Define anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new memories; forward-acting amnesia

Define retrograde amnesia

The inability to retrieve information from the past; backward-acting amnesia

Define sensory memory

The initial memory stage, which holds sensory information; its has relatively large capacity, but the duration is only a few seconds

Define memory

The persistence of learning over time; process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved

Define storage

The second step of the ESR memory model; retention of encoded information over time

Define stored

The second step of the ESR memory model; retention of encoded information over time

Define short-term memory (STM)

The sensory memory stage, which temporarily stores sensory information and transmits information to and from long-term memory (LTM); its capacity is limited to 5-9 items, and it has a duration of about 30 seconds; stores a mixture of perceptual analyses

Define parallel distributed processing (PDP) model

The theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in web-like connections among interacting processing units operating simultaneously, rather than sequentially; also known as connectionism

Define long-term memory (LTM)

The third stage of memory, which stores information for long periods of time; the capacity is virtually limitless, and the duration is relatively permanent

Define retrieval

The third step of the ESR memory model; recovery of information from memory storage

Define retrieved

The third step of the ESR memory model; recovery of information from memory storage

What type of information is known as iconic memory?

Visual information

What are the three parts of the working memory?

Visuospatial sketchpad, a phonological loop, and a central executive