Chapter 7 Psych Review
3 systems in memory storage and explain them
1. sensory memory :where info is stored for up to several seconds 2. short-term memory :where info is stored for up to 30 seconds 3. long-term memory where info is stored for up to a lifetime
explain the 3 important processes of memory
1.encoding -occurs when we take in information from the old around us 2. storage -is when we do something with that info in order to remember it at a later stage 3. retrieval -is when we recall the info we stored
a. chunking and rehearsal are two ways to improve short-term emery. :chunking- involves grouping amounts of info larger than 7 bits +2 or -2 of memory span into higher-order single units :rehearsal- involves repeating info over and over again a way to remember it (better for brief info and not Long term)
Chunking and Rehearsal
a. researchers today believe that memories are located in specific sets or circuits of neurons (Ardiel& Rankin, Clark & Squire). Squire says that most memories are probably clustered in groups of about 1,000 neurons b. researchers also discovered that when brain chemicals such as neurotransmitters are released in sea slugs, triggering memories. process might be same in humans
Neurons and memory
occurs when a person cannot remember new info, this disorder occurs forward doom the time of the event causing the amnesia. -consider anterograde involving the inability to make new memories
anterograde amnesia
1.in order to encode info we must pay attention to it, selective attention 2. divided attention, 3. sustained attention 4. divided attention can have negative effects on encoding, multitasking, which involves dividing attention between 2 or more tasks, compromises info getting to memory 5. recent studies have indicated that students text messaging during class is related to learning less course material, multitasking is also associated with symptoms of depression and social anxiety.
attention
are a form of episodic memory of a persons life experiences
autobiographical memories
a. hippocampus = temporal lobes in cerebral cortex and other parts involved in limbic system are involved in explicit memories b. left frontal lobe is more active in encoding , while right frontal lobe is more active in retrieval c. amygdala = plays role in emotional memories d. cerebellum is involved in the implicit memories required perform various skills e.neuroscientists have greatly benefited from the use of fMRI, which allows them to track neutral activity during cognitive tasks
brain structures and memory functions
is involved in the implicit memories required perform various skills
cerebellum
this type of memory involves the automatic association between stimuli
classical conditioning
is based on theory that memories are stored throughout brain in connections among neurons
connectionism or parallel-distributed processing (PDP)
when people remember info better in the same context in which they stored it
context-dependent memory
states that neurochemical memory traces disintegrate over time, suggests that forgetting always increase with the passage of time
decay theory
occurs when we think of the stimulus meaning and make associations (more association=deeper processing)
deepest level
occurs when we have to pay attention to several different things at the same time
divided attention
claims that memory for pictures is better than memory for works because pictures are stored as both image codes and verbal codes
dual-code hypothesis
is auditory sensory memory
echoic memory
1. elaboration is how extensive processing is at any level 2. takes place when a person not only remembers the definition of a stimulus, but also adds meaning to it 3. by elaborating on stimulus, we are making that stimulus distinctive and unique. (more unique= able to remember better) 4. as encoding becomes more elaborate and unique, more information is stored (when we elaborate on material, we memorize it w out trying) 5. relating materials to your own experience, self referencing 6. researchers have linked the process of elaboration of information is linked to neural activity, especially in left frontal lobe of brain
elaboration
when info was never stored into long-term memory in the first place, there is a problem with
encoding failure
states that the info available at the time of encoding tends to be effective in remembering info
encoding specificity principle
Is a type of explicit memory, it stores info about where, what and when info is occurring. pertains to a persons life
episodic memory
the most concrete level of memories consists of
event-specific knowledge
also known as declarative memory, is a the of memory for specific facts or events and info that can be verbally communicated
explicit memory
a. we can remember info or facts better when we organize them hierarchically, from general to specific b. new info can be stored in semantic networks, meaning that info is incorporated into the correct region of memory c. A shchema is a preexisting mental concept which helps us organize and interpret new info, fills gaps in long term memories d. connectionism, parallel-distributed processing (several work together to form one memory)
how memory is organized
is visual sensory memory
iconic memory
1. most powerful ways to remember info is using mental imagery. ex: Akira Haraguchi in 2005 recited the digits of pi to the first 83,431 decimal places. 2. classic studies by Allan Paivio elicited the dual-code hypothesis, pictures are stored as both image codes and verbal codes
imagery
a type of memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience w out conscious memory of the experience
implicit memory
a. implicit memory is also known as non declarative memory, behavior is affected by prior experience w out conscious memory of the experience b. one subsystem of implicit memory is known as procedural memory c. another subsystem of implicit memory is called classical conditioning d. 3rd subsystem is priming (person is able to learn this new info faster and better)
implicit memory
occurs because other info gets in the way of the info a person is trying to remember
interference
occurs when we recognize the stimulus and give it a name
intermediate level
is more active in encoding, older adults begin to use this for retrieval which compensates for memory problems
left frontal lobe
1. the shallow level 2.intermediate level 3. deepest level 4. studies have shown that a persons memory improves when processing is at the deepest level
levels of processing
the most abstract level of audio biographical memories are
lifetime periods
is better recall for info at the beginning of a list
primacy effect
involves taking info that a person has already learned out of storage in order to learn new information
priming
when info that was learned at a previous time interrupts the learning of new info its called
proactive interference
is a memory task that is used when a person needs to retire previously learned info from storage ex: used on essay exams
recall
what 2 factors are involved with retrieval cues and tasks
recall and recognition
is a memory task that is used when a person needs to identify presented items as familiar ex: used on multiple choice exams
recognition
is better recall for info at the end of a list
regency effect
1. 2 factors involved with remembering info, they are the nature of the cues you can use to prompt your memory and retrieval task that you set for yourself
retrieval cues and the retrieval task
researchers have theories on retrieval failure, such as problems with the info in storage, the effects of time, personal reasons of remembering or forgetting and the brains condition
retrieval failure
a. are a form of episodic memory of a persons life experiences b. lifetime periods c. general events d. event-specific knowledge e. when people tell their life stories, all 3 levels are usually present and intertwined f. most autobiographical memories are compromised of some truth and some myth
retrieval of autobiographical memories
a. flashbulb b. most flashbulb memories are of personal nature rather than some national event c. most people feel they are completely accurate in remembering the exact events that occurred in flashbulb memory, but they are probably not as accurate as they think. still more accurate that everyday memories. (emotional arousal triggered by the event contributes to the vividness and durability of the memory)
retrieval of emotional memories
when the learning of new info disrupts the remembering of previous info is called
retroactive interference
occurs when someone cannot remember past info, but does not have a problem forming or retrieving newer memories
retrograde amnesia
is more active in retrieval
right frontal lobe
occurs when we attend only to certain things in the environment, ignore other stimuli and only attend to a specific aspect of an experience.
selective attention
relating materials to to your own experiences, effective way of elaborating information
self-referencing
is a 2nd type of explicit memory, it pertains to info about the world. general, everyday, and academic knowledge but not personal
semantic memory
meaning that info is incorporated into the correct region of memory
semantic works
1. sensory memory holds info that is taken from environmental stimuli (held in sensory memory for 1 or 2 seconds) 2. we process info in sensory memory than we consciously notice 3. info is sensory memory is picked up by a persons senses 4. Echoic memory 5. iconic memory 6. George sperling conducted the first type of research on iconic memory. He found that people could remember 9 letters that the flashed on a screen, but iconic memory was too brief causing them to only recall half of them.
sensory memory
1. serial position effect 2. primacy effect 3. regency effect 4. info that is in the middle of a list is less likely to be forgotten if it is extremely valid or unusual
serial position effect
is the tendency to remember info that falls at the beginning and the end of a list more easily than the info in the middle
serial position effect
occurs when we are paying attention to the physical attributes of a stimulus
shallow level
is a preexisting mental concept which helps us organize and interpret new info
shchema
1. some of the info to which a person attends in transferred from sensory memory into short-term memory 2. info is held in short term memory for about 30 seconds 3. most people can hold about 7 bits +2 for -2 of information in short-term memory, memory span 4.chunking and rehearsal A
short-term memory
- some memories have special significance= because of reverence to the self, because of their emotional or traumatic character, or because they have unusually high levels or apparent accuracy
special cases of retrieval
is the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. ex:studying notes
sustained attention
A. memory is defined as the retention of information or experience over time. -memory occurs through 3 important processes: 1. encoding 2. storage 3. retrieval
the nature of memory
state as it is sometimes referred to, occurs when we almost remember something and are confident we know it, but cannot retrieve it. this phenomenon occurs when we retrieve some of the info but not all it. -research on this has shown that the sounds of words are linked in memory even if their meanings are not
tip-of-the-trounge phenomenon
a. Karl Lashley (1950) discovered that memories are not stored in one specific area of the brain, but through various parts
where memories are stored
a. working memory, proposed by Alan Baddeley: 3 part system that holds info temporarily while person is working on cognitive task (limited capacity ) b. is an active memory system and is considered separate from short-term memory c. 1st part is phonological loop d 2nd part is visuospatial working memory e. 3rd part is central executive f. concept of working memory can hep us understand how brain damage affects cognitive skills (deficits in working memory can be found in patients w Alzheimer disease) -Baddeley feel that these can be traced to central executive, which coordinates different mental activities
working memory
-The memories lost are thing that occurred previous to the event causing amnesia -in some cases, people can both anterograde and retrograde amnesia
amnesia
plays role in emotional memories
amygdala
a. eyewitness territory occurs when people asked to report exactly what they saw or heard as it related to a crime b. it is estimated that 7,500 people in the u.s. are arrested for and wrongly convicted of serous crimes due to eyewitness testimony c. popular shows such as CSI or other crime scene dramas give the impression that DNA Is widely available to protect innocent people from false accusations when in fact less than 5% of legal cases include eyewitness testimony and biological evidence d. eyewitness testimony remains an important piece of evidence and officials are applying psychological research to improve the ways they conduct criminal lineups
eyewitness testimony
occurs when people are used to report exactly what they saw or heard as it relates to a crime
eyewitness testimony
neuroscientists have greatly benefited from the use of this, which allows them to track neutral activity during cognitive tasks
fMRI
are memories of emotionally significant events that a person may recall with much more accuracy than memories of everyday events
flashbulb memories
the middle level of memories consists of
general events
organizing and storing information from general to specific
hierarchically
the temporal lobes in cerebral cortex and other parts of the limbic system are involved in explicit memories
hippocampus
1. permanent memory store base 2. vitally unlimited amount of space for long-term memory storage 3. consider the effect that technology and the internet have on our memory 4. explicit memory a. explicit memory (verbally communicated) b. Harry Bahrick found that any forgotten info from explicit memory is forgotten within the first 3 years after the memory was stored, after that the forgetting leveled off c. gradual learning is the key to permanent memory storage. if info is learned and noted over time, better chance of it remind explicit memory d. episodic memory is type of explicit memory e. semantic memory is 2nd type of explicit memory f. many explicit or decorative memories are nether purely episodic nor purely semantic -Tulving argues that episodic and semantic systems often work together in formatting new memories
long-term memory
is a relatively permanent memory storage base
long-term memory
is defined as the retention of information or experience over time.
memory
is defined as the way in which information is processed for storage in memory
memory encoding
a. memories of traumatic events are vivid, detailed and more accurate and long lasting than memories of everyday events. memory of trauma is subject to deterioration and distortion, usually in the details, whereas the central part of the memory is almost always effectively recalled b. stere-related hormones are likely to play a role in memories that involve personal trauma and may account for the vividness of memory for such traumatic events
memory for traumatic events
occurs when info that has been retained in long-term memory is taken out of storage
memory retrieval
most people can hold about 7 bits +2 or -2 of info in short-term memory
memory span
-storage determines how information is represented in history -Atkinson-Shriffin theory: states that there are 3 systems in memory storage
memory storage