Chapter 7 Psych Review

3 systems in memory storage and explain them

1. sensory memory :where info is stored for up to several seconds 2. short-term memory :where info is stored for up to 30 seconds 3. long-term memory where info is stored for up to a lifetime

explain the 3 important processes of memory

1.encoding -occurs when we take in information from the old around us 2. storage -is when we do something with that info in order to remember it at a later stage 3. retrieval -is when we recall the info we stored

a. chunking and rehearsal are two ways to improve short-term emery. :chunking- involves grouping amounts of info larger than 7 bits +2 or -2 of memory span into higher-order single units :rehearsal- involves repeating info over and over again a way to remember it (better for brief info and not Long term)

Chunking and Rehearsal

a. researchers today believe that memories are located in specific sets or circuits of neurons (Ardiel& Rankin, Clark & Squire). Squire says that most memories are probably clustered in groups of about 1,000 neurons b. researchers also discovered that when brain chemicals such as neurotransmitters are released in sea slugs, triggering memories. process might be same in humans

Neurons and memory

occurs when a person cannot remember new info, this disorder occurs forward doom the time of the event causing the amnesia. -consider anterograde involving the inability to make new memories

anterograde amnesia

1.in order to encode info we must pay attention to it, selective attention 2. divided attention, 3. sustained attention 4. divided attention can have negative effects on encoding, multitasking, which involves dividing attention between 2 or more tasks, compromises info getting to memory 5. recent studies have indicated that students text messaging during class is related to learning less course material, multitasking is also associated with symptoms of depression and social anxiety.

attention

are a form of episodic memory of a persons life experiences

autobiographical memories

a. hippocampus = temporal lobes in cerebral cortex and other parts involved in limbic system are involved in explicit memories b. left frontal lobe is more active in encoding , while right frontal lobe is more active in retrieval c. amygdala = plays role in emotional memories d. cerebellum is involved in the implicit memories required perform various skills e.neuroscientists have greatly benefited from the use of fMRI, which allows them to track neutral activity during cognitive tasks

brain structures and memory functions

is involved in the implicit memories required perform various skills

cerebellum

this type of memory involves the automatic association between stimuli

classical conditioning

is based on theory that memories are stored throughout brain in connections among neurons

connectionism or parallel-distributed processing (PDP)

when people remember info better in the same context in which they stored it

context-dependent memory

states that neurochemical memory traces disintegrate over time, suggests that forgetting always increase with the passage of time

decay theory

occurs when we think of the stimulus meaning and make associations (more association=deeper processing)

deepest level

occurs when we have to pay attention to several different things at the same time

divided attention

claims that memory for pictures is better than memory for works because pictures are stored as both image codes and verbal codes

dual-code hypothesis

is auditory sensory memory

echoic memory

1. elaboration is how extensive processing is at any level 2. takes place when a person not only remembers the definition of a stimulus, but also adds meaning to it 3. by elaborating on stimulus, we are making that stimulus distinctive and unique. (more unique= able to remember better) 4. as encoding becomes more elaborate and unique, more information is stored (when we elaborate on material, we memorize it w out trying) 5. relating materials to your own experience, self referencing 6. researchers have linked the process of elaboration of information is linked to neural activity, especially in left frontal lobe of brain

elaboration

when info was never stored into long-term memory in the first place, there is a problem with

encoding failure

states that the info available at the time of encoding tends to be effective in remembering info

encoding specificity principle

Is a type of explicit memory, it stores info about where, what and when info is occurring. pertains to a persons life

episodic memory

the most concrete level of memories consists of

event-specific knowledge

also known as declarative memory, is a the of memory for specific facts or events and info that can be verbally communicated

explicit memory

a. we can remember info or facts better when we organize them hierarchically, from general to specific b. new info can be stored in semantic networks, meaning that info is incorporated into the correct region of memory c. A shchema is a preexisting mental concept which helps us organize and interpret new info, fills gaps in long term memories d. connectionism, parallel-distributed processing (several work together to form one memory)

how memory is organized

is visual sensory memory

iconic memory

1. most powerful ways to remember info is using mental imagery. ex: Akira Haraguchi in 2005 recited the digits of pi to the first 83,431 decimal places. 2. classic studies by Allan Paivio elicited the dual-code hypothesis, pictures are stored as both image codes and verbal codes

imagery

a type of memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience w out conscious memory of the experience

implicit memory

a. implicit memory is also known as non declarative memory, behavior is affected by prior experience w out conscious memory of the experience b. one subsystem of implicit memory is known as procedural memory c. another subsystem of implicit memory is called classical conditioning d. 3rd subsystem is priming (person is able to learn this new info faster and better)

implicit memory

occurs because other info gets in the way of the info a person is trying to remember

interference

occurs when we recognize the stimulus and give it a name

intermediate level

is more active in encoding, older adults begin to use this for retrieval which compensates for memory problems

left frontal lobe

1. the shallow level 2.intermediate level 3. deepest level 4. studies have shown that a persons memory improves when processing is at the deepest level

levels of processing

the most abstract level of audio biographical memories are

lifetime periods

is better recall for info at the beginning of a list

primacy effect

involves taking info that a person has already learned out of storage in order to learn new information

priming

when info that was learned at a previous time interrupts the learning of new info its called

proactive interference

is a memory task that is used when a person needs to retire previously learned info from storage ex: used on essay exams

recall

what 2 factors are involved with retrieval cues and tasks

recall and recognition

is a memory task that is used when a person needs to identify presented items as familiar ex: used on multiple choice exams

recognition

is better recall for info at the end of a list

regency effect

1. 2 factors involved with remembering info, they are the nature of the cues you can use to prompt your memory and retrieval task that you set for yourself

retrieval cues and the retrieval task

researchers have theories on retrieval failure, such as problems with the info in storage, the effects of time, personal reasons of remembering or forgetting and the brains condition

retrieval failure

a. are a form of episodic memory of a persons life experiences b. lifetime periods c. general events d. event-specific knowledge e. when people tell their life stories, all 3 levels are usually present and intertwined f. most autobiographical memories are compromised of some truth and some myth

retrieval of autobiographical memories

a. flashbulb b. most flashbulb memories are of personal nature rather than some national event c. most people feel they are completely accurate in remembering the exact events that occurred in flashbulb memory, but they are probably not as accurate as they think. still more accurate that everyday memories. (emotional arousal triggered by the event contributes to the vividness and durability of the memory)

retrieval of emotional memories

when the learning of new info disrupts the remembering of previous info is called

retroactive interference

occurs when someone cannot remember past info, but does not have a problem forming or retrieving newer memories

retrograde amnesia

is more active in retrieval

right frontal lobe

occurs when we attend only to certain things in the environment, ignore other stimuli and only attend to a specific aspect of an experience.

selective attention

relating materials to to your own experiences, effective way of elaborating information

self-referencing

is a 2nd type of explicit memory, it pertains to info about the world. general, everyday, and academic knowledge but not personal

semantic memory

meaning that info is incorporated into the correct region of memory

semantic works

1. sensory memory holds info that is taken from environmental stimuli (held in sensory memory for 1 or 2 seconds) 2. we process info in sensory memory than we consciously notice 3. info is sensory memory is picked up by a persons senses 4. Echoic memory 5. iconic memory 6. George sperling conducted the first type of research on iconic memory. He found that people could remember 9 letters that the flashed on a screen, but iconic memory was too brief causing them to only recall half of them.

sensory memory

1. serial position effect 2. primacy effect 3. regency effect 4. info that is in the middle of a list is less likely to be forgotten if it is extremely valid or unusual

serial position effect

is the tendency to remember info that falls at the beginning and the end of a list more easily than the info in the middle

serial position effect

occurs when we are paying attention to the physical attributes of a stimulus

shallow level

is a preexisting mental concept which helps us organize and interpret new info

shchema

1. some of the info to which a person attends in transferred from sensory memory into short-term memory 2. info is held in short term memory for about 30 seconds 3. most people can hold about 7 bits +2 for -2 of information in short-term memory, memory span 4.chunking and rehearsal A

short-term memory

- some memories have special significance= because of reverence to the self, because of their emotional or traumatic character, or because they have unusually high levels or apparent accuracy

special cases of retrieval

is the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. ex:studying notes

sustained attention

A. memory is defined as the retention of information or experience over time. -memory occurs through 3 important processes: 1. encoding 2. storage 3. retrieval

the nature of memory

state as it is sometimes referred to, occurs when we almost remember something and are confident we know it, but cannot retrieve it. this phenomenon occurs when we retrieve some of the info but not all it. -research on this has shown that the sounds of words are linked in memory even if their meanings are not

tip-of-the-trounge phenomenon

a. Karl Lashley (1950) discovered that memories are not stored in one specific area of the brain, but through various parts

where memories are stored

a. working memory, proposed by Alan Baddeley: 3 part system that holds info temporarily while person is working on cognitive task (limited capacity ) b. is an active memory system and is considered separate from short-term memory c. 1st part is phonological loop d 2nd part is visuospatial working memory e. 3rd part is central executive f. concept of working memory can hep us understand how brain damage affects cognitive skills (deficits in working memory can be found in patients w Alzheimer disease) -Baddeley feel that these can be traced to central executive, which coordinates different mental activities

working memory

-The memories lost are thing that occurred previous to the event causing amnesia -in some cases, people can both anterograde and retrograde amnesia

amnesia

plays role in emotional memories

amygdala

a. eyewitness territory occurs when people asked to report exactly what they saw or heard as it related to a crime b. it is estimated that 7,500 people in the u.s. are arrested for and wrongly convicted of serous crimes due to eyewitness testimony c. popular shows such as CSI or other crime scene dramas give the impression that DNA Is widely available to protect innocent people from false accusations when in fact less than 5% of legal cases include eyewitness testimony and biological evidence d. eyewitness testimony remains an important piece of evidence and officials are applying psychological research to improve the ways they conduct criminal lineups

eyewitness testimony

occurs when people are used to report exactly what they saw or heard as it relates to a crime

eyewitness testimony

neuroscientists have greatly benefited from the use of this, which allows them to track neutral activity during cognitive tasks

fMRI

are memories of emotionally significant events that a person may recall with much more accuracy than memories of everyday events

flashbulb memories

the middle level of memories consists of

general events

organizing and storing information from general to specific

hierarchically

the temporal lobes in cerebral cortex and other parts of the limbic system are involved in explicit memories

hippocampus

1. permanent memory store base 2. vitally unlimited amount of space for long-term memory storage 3. consider the effect that technology and the internet have on our memory 4. explicit memory a. explicit memory (verbally communicated) b. Harry Bahrick found that any forgotten info from explicit memory is forgotten within the first 3 years after the memory was stored, after that the forgetting leveled off c. gradual learning is the key to permanent memory storage. if info is learned and noted over time, better chance of it remind explicit memory d. episodic memory is type of explicit memory e. semantic memory is 2nd type of explicit memory f. many explicit or decorative memories are nether purely episodic nor purely semantic -Tulving argues that episodic and semantic systems often work together in formatting new memories

long-term memory

is a relatively permanent memory storage base

long-term memory

is defined as the retention of information or experience over time.

memory

is defined as the way in which information is processed for storage in memory

memory encoding

a. memories of traumatic events are vivid, detailed and more accurate and long lasting than memories of everyday events. memory of trauma is subject to deterioration and distortion, usually in the details, whereas the central part of the memory is almost always effectively recalled b. stere-related hormones are likely to play a role in memories that involve personal trauma and may account for the vividness of memory for such traumatic events

memory for traumatic events

occurs when info that has been retained in long-term memory is taken out of storage

memory retrieval

most people can hold about 7 bits +2 or -2 of info in short-term memory

memory span

-storage determines how information is represented in history -Atkinson-Shriffin theory: states that there are 3 systems in memory storage

memory storage