Chapter 7 Study

Effects of observational learning can be seen in:

Both animals and humans

A hungry monkey's lever pressing behavior is reinforced with a banana-flavored treat. Which would produce the MOST dopamine activity?

treat delivery after the behavior is learned and the monkey expects the treat

Which is an example of negative reinforcement?

turning off loud music

Latent learning can easily be established in rats:

without any obvious reinforcement

Many professions include _____ as a training mechanism so that people can learn by watching the actions of others

Observational learning

The phase of classical conditioning in which the CS and the US are presented together is called:

acquisition.

Skinner expanded on the work of Thorndike by focusing on:

both reinforcement and punishment

Secondary reinforcers derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforcers through:

classical conditioning.

Rescorla and Wagner introduced a(n) _____ component to classical conditioning.

cognitive

Extinction in operant conditioning involves:

no longer presenting the reinforcer when the response occurs.

In Pavlov's experiments on second-order conditioning, dogs were conditioned to salivate at the sight of a black square by:

pairing it with a tone that previously had been associated with food.

Thorndike's law of effect states that behaviors leading to pleasant situations will be _____, and behaviors that result in unpleasant situations will be _____.

repeated; avoided

Lots of cash in hand always makes Charlie's heart race with excitement, due to the phenomenon known as:

second-order conditioning.

Shaping reinforces _____ behavior sequences until the overall sequence of behavior is performed reliably.

smaller

An experienced user who takes heroin in a new setting has an increased risk of overdose because:

the CS that triggers the compensatory CR is degraded or absent altogether.

Billy Bob's Big Burger Barn is your favorite restaurant, and lately you've noticed that every time you walk by there on your way to class, your mouth starts to salivate. In this incidence of classical conditioning, the sight of the restaurant is the _____; your salivation is the _____.

CS; CR

When a neutral stimulus evokes a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes a response, the result is an example of which phenomena?

Classical conditions

Research has demonstrated observational learning in:

humans and a variety of animals.

Rats that traverse a maze for 10 consecutive days with no reward show no evidence of learning the maze. When reinforcement is provided beginning on the 11th day, these rats will:

immediately demonstrate mastery of the maze.

A child throws a temper tantrum at the mall because he wants to play with the toy that his mother just bought him. The most effective way for his mother to punish this behavior is to:

immediately return the toy she just bought him.

Learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition is called:

implicit learning.

Using an artificial grammar is one way of studying:

implicit learning.

One characteristic of implicitly learned information is that it:

is difficult to explain to others.

Like classical conditioning, operant conditioning:

is free from explanations involving the mind.

A condition in which something is learned but is NOT manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future is called:

latent learning

Not providing a reinforcer every time a response occurs:

may strengthen the behavior.

Which item is a secondary reinforcer?

money

A teenager swears at the dinner table, and as a result, her parents take away her iPod for one week. The teenager is now much less likely to swear at the dinner table, illustrating:

negative punishment

Michelle is going to be tested on five chapters from her sociology text this week. Which method would likely be the MOST effective for her to learn this material?

Practice testing

_____ schedules of reinforcement typically produce the highest and most consistent rates of responding.

Ratio

From an evolutionary perspective, effective learning to avoid any food that has made you sick in the past should have all of these EXCEPT:

development of an aversion more often to familiar than to unfamiliar foods.

Relative insensitivity to delayed rewards helps explain why it is:

difficult to engage in behaviors that have only long-term benefits.

Ivan Pavlov originally set out to study the processes involved with _____ in dogs.

digestion

In Pavlov's experiments on second-order conditioning, dogs were conditioned to salivate at the sight of a black square:

even though the black square was never directly associated with food.

When a conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus, _____ will gradually occur.

extinction

When the veterinarian advised an owner to feed her dog in the morning instead of in the evening, it took several days for the dog to stop salivating late in the afternoon around its previous dinner time. This is an example of:

extinction.

A toddler has learned that the jack-in-the-box won't operate unless she turns the hand crank around exactly 10 times. The toddler's behavior is being reinforced under which schedule of reinforcement?

fixed ratio

Sam gets a free pretzel using his Pretzel Smorgasbord card with every 10th pretzel he buys. This arrangement is an example of which type of reinforcement schedule?

fixed ratio

In Ken's experiment, a monkey must push a lever to get a reward. If the monkey is successful, it gets a piece of banana every 2 minutes. What type of reinforcement schedule is this?

fixed-interval

Behavior that an organism produces, which has some impact on the environment, is known as:

operant behavior.

In Pavlov's famous studies, the _____ was the conditioned stimulus, and the _____ was the conditioned response.

sound; salivation

The tendency of a previously extinguished behavior to reoccur following a rest period is called:

spontaneous recovery.

Which of these describes how the intensity of a CR changes during the acquisition phase of classical conditioning?

starts low, rises rapidly, then tapers off

One day when Max was bowling, his shoelaces came untied and he bowled a strike. From then onward, Max always bowled with his shoes untied. This action is an example of:

superstitious behavior.

In what way did Thorndike's experiments significantly differ from Pavlov's?

The behavior of the animal determined what happened next.

_____ conducted research with cats in puzzle boxes.

Thorndike

In classical conditioning, stimuli that are initially neutral:

come to elicit the conditioned response.

Your friend's mother was always baking ginger-flavored cookies whenever you were at their house. You loved those cookies, and would eat several each time you visited. One day, you noticed that you started to salivate as you walked up the front steps to the house, before you smelled the cookies. The reason for this is that the house has become a(n):

conditioned stimulus

Nine-month-old Albert cried when a large steel bar was struck with a hammer while he viewed a white rat. In this acquisition phase, the white rat was the:

conditioned stimulus.

The special case of presenting reinforcement after each response is called _____ reinforcement.

continuous

Superstitious behavior:

results from accidental reinforcement of inconsequential behavior.

In Pavlov's research, what was the UR?

salivating upon food presentation

Tolman trained rats to run down a straightaway, and subsequently make several turns until finally reaching a goal box baited with food. After the rats learned this task, the maze was altered. The main straightaway was blocked. However, there were many alternate paths radiating in all directions from the start box. The goal box remained in the same location relative to the start box, and one of the alternate paths led directly to it. Tolman found that rats:

selected the path that led directly to the goal box, even though they had never traversed this route before.

A person tries to call her friend and there is no answer. She waits a little while and tries again but there is still no answer. She continues to try for the rest of the day but her friend never answers. Exasperated, she gives up. What is happening to the friend-calling behavior?

It is being extinguished.

A general process in which the presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus is termed:

Sensitization

A rat's lever presses occasionally produce food. Across conditions, the food is delivered either immediately after a lever press or after some delay. Which is true?

The rate of lever pressing decreases as a function of its delay.

A reflexive reaction that is reliably elicited by an unconditioned stimulus is called a(n) _____ response.

Unconditioned

A speck of dirt that gets into your eye will naturally cause a blinking reflex. The speck of dirt is a(n):

Unconditioned stimulus

Little Albert developed a fear of a _____ because it was paired with a(n) _____.

White House; loud noise

Learning typically involves:

a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner.

Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment showed how children can learn _____ through observation.

aggression

Benjamin used to startle every time the family dog would bark. Now he continues whatever he is doing and appears to not even notice the dog's bark. Benjamin has probably:

become habituated to the dog's bark.

Dana, a 6-year-old, was recently bitten by her grandmother's terrier. Dana sees a small dog in the park a week later and begins to cry. MOST likely, Dana is exhibiting:

generalization

Cancer patients experiencing nausea from chemotherapy often develop taste aversions to the foods they had eaten earlier. Based on the research of Garcia and colleagues, researchers developed a technique for minimizing this negative effect involving:

giving a patient unusual foods, such as coconut or root-beer flavored candy, at the end of their last meal before undergoing treatment.

Jill moved into an apartment near a small airport five months ago. At first, the sound of the planes taking off kept her awake at night, but now she only notices them if someone points out the noise. Which learning principle explains this?

habituation

A teacher originally wanted to increase class participation, so she positively reinforced the asking of questions with nickels. After a few days, students had stacks of nickels on their desks, and the class was asking far too many questions. The teacher decided things were better off when the students didn't ask so many questions. To reduce the asking of questions, the teacher has several options available to her. She could approach the students' desks and physically remove a nickel from their stacks whenever they ask a question, a process known as _____, or, she could simply no longer give students nickels when they ask questions, a process known as _____.

negative punishment; extinction

Classical conditioning occurs by pairing a(n) _____ with a(n) _____ to produce a response.

neutral stimulus; unconditioned stimulus

Learned food aversions are generally acquired from _____ due to the evolutionary adaptive conditioning of rejecting foods that may be toxic.

novel foods

Younger children may learn some things at a younger age than did their older siblings because of:

observational learning

Every time a rat presses a lever, it receives a small injection of cocaine. That rat begins pressing the lever more and more, indicating that cocaine is a:

positive reinforcer.

A(n) _____ schedule is based on the number of responses needed to achieve reinforcement.

ratio

Tolman's experiments with rats and mazes strongly suggested that:

there is a cognitive component to operant learning.

In one study, pigeons watched other pigeons receive reinforcement for either stepping on a bar or pecking at the feeder. When the observer pigeons were later put in the operant chamber they tended to:

use whichever technique that they had observed.

Positive punishers _____ behavior, and negative punishers _____ behavior.

weaken; weaken

When children observed the adult models being rewarded for being aggressive toward the Bobo doll, the children:

were even more aggressive to the Bobo doll.