Chapter 7
A person's knowledge about the world and his or her area of expertise is known as _______________ memory
semantic
Recalling who the U.S. president is and remembering the capital of Japan are components of ______ memory.
semantic
The awareness that people can have false beliefs (beliefs that are not true) develops in a majority of children by which age?
5
At around which age are children first able to understand that the same event can be open to multiple interpretations?
7
In research done by Stephanie Carlson, under which of the following conditions did children become more flexible in their thinking?
After hearing about a topsy-turvy imaginary world
Which of the following dietary supplements has shown some positive effect in the cognitive abilities of older adults?
Fish oil
Which of the following refers to the scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people?
Artificial intelligence
Michelle, an infant, is looking intently at her mother as she sings her a song. Which of the following best describes what Michelle is demonstrating?
Attention
Which of the following is an aspect of long-term memory?
Autobiographical memory
What cognitive skill allows children to process information with little or no effort?
Automaticity
Which of the following statements accurately describe the development of children's theory of mind from toddlerhood into early childhood?
Children begin to recognize and acknowledge that their desires can differ from another child's desires. Children begin to recognize and verbalize positive and negative emotions. Children begin to understand that what others see may not be the same as what they see.
Use it or lose it is a component of the engagement model of the _______________ ____________ approach, which emphasizes the role of social and intellectual engagement in protecting against declines in intellectual development.
Cognitive optimization
Older adults tend to develop deficiencies in which of the following areas of attention?
Complex vigilance tasks Selective attention Aspects of driving
______ are cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas.
Concepts
Which of the following is NOT something that computers can do better than the human brain?
Develop new learning goals
Sally is able to ignore information that is not important and recognize the information that is important. This is an example of which of the following cognitive skills?
Encoding
____________ is the process by which information gets into memory
Encoding
_____________ is the process by which information gets into memory.
Encoding
Which of the following are factors influence children's theory of mind development?
Engagement in pretend play Parent engagement in mind-mindedness Advances in prefrontal cortex functioning
Conceptualization of metacognition includes which of the following?
Evaluation Self-regulation Planning
Which of the following are two aspects of attention that develop in early childhood?
Executive attention Sustained attention
Which of the following is the most important cognitive change that occurs during adolescence?
Executive control
What term is used to describe the most important cognitive change in adolescence, involving reasoning, making decisions, and monitoring thinking critically?
Executive function
Which of the following statements are true about executive function in aging adults?
Executive function skills decline in older adults. Older adults are not as cognitively flexible as younger adults. Older adults are less effective at inhibiting dominant or automatic responses.
Gabby is a toddler who loves going to the library. When Gabby and her mother get to the library, Gabby knows exactly where to go to get to the children's section. What type of memory is used in this instance?
Explicit memory
Rebecca is a toddler who is being cared for by a babysitter. Rebecca wants a cookie before bedtime. The sitter tells Rebecca that she does not know where the cookies are. Rebecca takes the sitter by the hand and leads her to the cabinet where the cookies are kept. What type of memory is Rebecca using?
Explicit memory
Which type of memory improves substantially during the second year of life?
Explicit memory
True or false: Advances in executive function do not occur until a child reaches elementary school.
False
True or false: As of yet, no software-based cognitive training games have been found to improve older adults' cognitive functioning.
False
True or false: Executive function is uninfluenced by social or environmental factors.
False
True or false: There is a developmental transition from early childhood into school age in which the children recognize that they can verbalize their preferences and that those preferences may be different from their parents'.
False
According to which of the following is decision making influenced by two systems—"verbatim" analytical and gist-based intuition—that operate in parallel?
Fuzzy-trace theory dual-process model
Which type of memory is demonstrated earliest in infants?
Implicit memory
Which of the following factors influence the accuracy of a young child's memory?
Individual differences in susceptibility Age differences in susceptibility to suggestion Interviewing techniques that produce substantial distortions
Which of the following are true of infants' advances in processing information, as compared to how it was envisioned by earlier theorists?
It occurs earlier than previously envisioned. It is more gradual. It is much richer.
What cognitive skill allows children to interrupt a task in order to process or assess information without prompting?
Strategy construction
Which of the following refers to a relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time?
Long-term memory
Which of the following statements about memory changes in adulthood is true?
Memory changes with age, but in different ways.
What is the definition of source memory?
Memory that involves the ability to remember where one learned something
What term is used to explain "knowing about knowing"?
Metacognition
When is expertise more likely to occur?
Middle adulthood
Which of the following refers to being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going through life's everyday activities and tasks?
Mindfulness
Which of the following statements is true about semantic memory in older adults?
Older adults take longer to retrieve semantic information.
Baby Lexi has awakened in her crib. She cries to alert her parents that she is awake. Lexi stands in her crib, hanging onto the bars and watching the door. When her mother opens the door and comes in, Lexi stops crying, smiles, and waves. What attentional concept does this example describe?
Orienting/investigative process
What process involves directing attention to potentially important locations in the environment and recognizing objects and their features?
Orienting/investigative process
Michael is a baby who has demonstrated that he can put all the red blocks in one pile and all the blue blocks in a different pile. What area of categorization has Michael demonstrated?
Perceptual categorization
The theories of which two theorists are similar to the information-processing approach in that they focus more on how people think?
Piaget Vygotsky
As compared to preschool children, when asked to compare the similarities in something, elementary school children are more likely to systematically compare the details of both objects. Which of the following aspects of attention that is deficient in preschool children does this demonstrate?
Planfulness
Which age group is the most susceptible to suggestion?
Preschoolers
A researcher is doing an experiment using a reaction-time task in which individuals are asked to push a button as soon as they see a stimulus, such as a light. Which of the following is the researcher most likely measuring?
Processing speed
Which of the following techniques would a developmental cognitive neuroscientist be LEAST likely to use?
Psychoanalysis
What are two typical strategies that older children and adults use to remember information more effectively?
Rehearsal Organization
Which of the following is NOT a necessary requirement of joint attention?
Reinforcement for attending to an event
Which of the following aspects of working memory begin to decline in older adults?
Replacing old, no longer relevant information Updating relevant memory representations
Advances in executive function skills in preschool are linked with which of the following?
School readiness Subsequent literacy and math skills Academic achievement
Which of the following aspects of executive function are most important for young children's cognitive development and school success?
Self-control Working memory Flexibility
Which of the following is true regarding the research into whether mindfulness training improves older adults' cognitive functioning?
Some but not all studies have shown that mindfulness training improves older adults' cognitive functioning.
Which aspect of monitoring information would be most difficult for an older adult?
Source memory
Which of the following statements is FALSE about lifestyle and cognitive functioning?
Stress has not been associated with cognitive decline
Which of the following statements about young children and attention are true?
Television watching has been linked to attention problems in young children. Toddlers tend to spend little time focusing on any one thing or event. Pre-school children often have a long enough attention span to watch television for a half-hour.
Which of the following refers to the concept that changes in cognitive functioning may be linked more to distance from death or cognition-related pathology than to distance from birth?
Terminal decline
If an infant categorizes birds and airplanes into the same group, which of the following statements is true regarding the infant's perceptual categorization and conceptual categorization?
The infant understands perceptual categorization but not conceptual categorization.
In the study of habituation and dishabituation, infant sucking behavior helps determine if infants recognize a novel stimulus. How would a researcher be able to tell whether an infant is experiencing dishabituation? Multiple choice question.
The infant will stop sucking.
Which theory views children as thinkers who can predict, explain, and understand themselves and others?
Theory of mind
According to the research, which of the following were true of preschoolers who were able to delay gratification?
They became more academically successful. They made more money as adults. They coped with stress better as adolescents.
Which of the following best characterizes the concept of terminal decline?
Time to death is a good predictor of cognitive decline.
Teachers can expand children's critical thinking by asking them to do which of the following?
To evaluate To think To analyze
Which of the following statements is FALSE about work and cognitive functioning?
Today's jobs will have less of an impact than jobs of the past on adults' cognitive functioning.
True or false: A limitation on processing information is the speed at which it takes place.
True
True or false: According to the fuzzy-trace theory dual-process model, it is more beneficial for adolescents to base their judgments and decisions on simple gist than on analytical thinking.
True
True or false: Changes in the brain influence cognitive functioning, and changes in cognitive functioning can influence the brain.
True
True or false: In a study of Catholic priests aged 65 and older, those who regularly exercised their mind (e.g. reading, doing crosswords) were less likely to develop Alzheimer disease than those who did not engage in such activities.
True
True or false: Long-term memory depends on the activities individuals engage in when learning and remembering information.
True
True or false: The human infant shows a remarkable degree of learning power and complexity in what is being learned.
True
In which two areas of attention do older adults have more difficulty in comparison to younger adults?
Vigilance Selective attention
Which of the following occurred during the classic false-belief task with the Band-Aids box and contents?
When asking 3-year-olds what they thought another 3-year-old would say was in the box, the 3-year-olds responded, "Pencils." The 5-year-olds were able to recognize that another child who had not seen the box before would have a false belief about its contents. When asking 5-year-olds what they thought a fellow 5-year-old would say was in the box, the 5-year-olds responded, "Band-Aids." Children ages 4 to 5 were surprised to see pencils in the Band-Aids box.
In the computer-brain analogy, as input (information) comes into the mind, mental processes:
act on it like a computer's software acts on data.
According to research, which of the following is best linked to improved executive function in adults?
aerobic exercise
Studies have found ______ in older adults improved their performance in planning, scheduling, and processing with multiple tasks.
aerobic fitness
The focusing of mental resources is known as _________
attention
Memory of significant events and experiences in one's life is called ______ memory.
autobiographical
Once children have learned to read well, they do not think about each letter in a word as a letter, instead they begin to unconsciously encode whole words. This is referred to as:
automaticity.
Jake went to the store and selected a new truck to give his Mom for her birthday. Jake's older brother explained that their Mom does not like trucks like he does and instructed him to select a piece of jewelry. Jake's older brother is demonstrating:
awareness
The fact that older adults' working memory can be improved through training most implicates which of the following?
brain plasticity
Research has shown that ____________ of interests (such as trucks, trains, books, or reading) on particular items is influenced strongly by gender.
categories
Memory that is a relatively permanent and unlimited is referred to as __________- term memory
long
Research has shown physical fitness in older adults can improve their ______ functioning.
cognitive
What two factors can strengthen brain scaffolding?
cognitive engagement exercise
In early childhood, executive function involves which of the following developmental advances?
cognitive inhibition goal-setting cognitive flexibility
The field of science that studies the links between development, the brain, and cognitive functioning is called developmental:
cognitive neuroscience.
According to one study, older adults assessed in 2013-2014 engaged in a higher level of abstract reasoning than their counterparts who were assessed two decades earlier. This best exemplifies the impact of which of the following?
cohort effects
What must infants have in order to make generalizations about objects?
concepts
Which of the following refers to psychological processes involving conscious control driven by logical thinking and critical analysis?
cool executive function
When people grasp the deeper meaning of ideas, keep an open mind about different approaches and perspectives, and decide for themselves what to believe or do, they are using ______ thinking.
critical
The increase in responsiveness after a change in stimulus is referred to as:
dishabituation.
Evidence suggests that training cognitive skills is:
effective for many older adults.
Scott tries to remember his neighbors' names by putting them in ABC order. This is a more engaging extensive mental strategy for processing, called
elaboration
When someone is engaging in more extensive processing of information for the benefit of memory, that person is most likely using ______ as a memory strategy.
elaboration
Hypertension has been associated with ______ cognitive performance in older adults.
lower
Many older adults __________ decision-making skills, but experience ________ i working and long-term memory
maintain, decrease
Autobiographical memories are stored as ______ memories.
episodic
Remembering what you did on the first day of high school is an example of ______ memory.
episodic
The retention of information about life's happenings is known as ______ memory.
episodic
A study of 60- to 90-year-olds found that sustained engagement in cognitively demanding, novel activities improved the older adults'
episodic memory.
Consciously managing one's thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and self-control is accomplished by ________________ function
executive
The ______ attention system supports rapid increases in effortful control in the preschool years.
executive
The concept of _____________ function refers to a number of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex.
executive
Having extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain is best described as:
expertise
Compared with novices, ____________ are more likely to rely on their accumulated experience to solve problems.
experts
The awareness that options and alternatives are available for adapting to the situation is a description of cognitive ______________
flexibility
To be successful in school, children need to be less rigid and learn to be more ________________ in their thinking, as well as be able to consider different strategies and perspectives.
flexible
When ______ is used, fuzzy traces are built up, which are more enduring and less likely to be forgotten than ______ traces. Multiple choice question.
gist; verbatim
In making an analogy between the information processing of the brain and computers, the brain is analogous to the computer's:
hardware.
Children with an advanced theory of mind
have better social skills in peer relations.
Three important factors associated with cohort effects on cognitive functioning are ______, ______, and ______.
health education work
Psychological processes driven by emotion are referred to as ___________ executive function.
hot
Riding a bike, swinging a bat, or texting without having to consciously think about it are examples of ____________ memory
implicit
Sally automatically gets on her bike and starts to ride, even after several months have passed without using her bicycle. This is an example of ______ memory.
implicit
Cognitive control ______ during adolescence and emerging adulthood.
increases
The contemporary approach on cognitive development that focuses on how individuals encode information, manipulate it, monitor it, and create strategies for handling it is called the ______ approach.
information-processing
Regarding the development of a child's theory of mind, changes tend to occur in all of the following mental areas EXCEPT:
insight
Reciprocal interaction is one component of:
joint attention.
The main goal of developmental robotics is to:
learn more about humans and their development.
Remembering your name and your birth date is an example of ______, the retention of information over time. Multiple choice question.
memory
Speed of repetition is a powerful predictor of ______ span.
memory
The retention of information over time is referred to as
memory
During elementary school years children use gist, and its use contributes to the improved ______ of older children.
memory and reasoning
Strategies involve the use of ______ activities to improve the processing of information.
mental
Michael understands that he is aware of his thinking. "Knowing about knowing" is an example of
metacognition
When schools pay attention to helping students develop skills that entail knowing about their own knowing, those schools are fostering:
metacognition.
In the twentieth century, successive generations in the United States were ______ likely to be educated.
more
Later generations were ______ their grandparents to have work experiences that included emphasis on cognitively oriented labor.
more likely than
Which view posits that increased activation in the prefrontal cortex with aging reflects an adaptive brain that is compensating for the challenges of declining neural structures and function, as well as declines in various aspects of cognition?
neurocognitive scaffolding view
According to research, which of the following have been associated with the development of executive function in children?
parental education fathers' autonomy support secure attachment
Of the following variables, which appears to be most effective in lessening the decline in executive function in late adulthood?
physical fitness
Educational experiences have been ______ with better performance on memory tasks.
positively correlated
Aging in which part of the brain may produce a decline in working memory?
prefrontal cortex
Executive function refers to a number of higher level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's:
prefrontal cortex.
An important aspect of cognitive flexibility is
self-efficacy.
Increases in which of the following are reasons that memory span changes with age?
processing speed rehearsal of information
______ memory involves remembering to do something in the future, such as remembering to take your medicine or remembering to do an errand.
prospective
In order to solve problems in their domain, experts are more likely than novices to use strategies that include all of the following, EXCEPT:
relying exclusively on recent experiences.
The phenomenon in which individuals remember more events from the second and third decades of their lives than from other decades is known as the ______ bump.
reminiscence
Amy's teacher is explaining math concepts to the class. Amy cannot help paying attention to the teacher's colorful sweater. In this example, Amy is focusing on ______ stimuli.
salient
Because of preschool children's impulsivity, there is a struggle between:
salient features and relevant features.
Research using the memory-span task suggests that ______-term memory increases during early childhood.
short
__________ term memory involves retaining information for up to 30 seconds without rehearsal.
short
Working memory is closely linked to ______ memory.
short term
A researcher who reads off a short list of numbers at a rapid pace and then asks a participant to repeat the numbers is most likely studying
short-term memory.
The child's ability to pay attention improves ______ during the preschool years.
significantly
Of the following, the reliability of a young child's eyewitness testimony is probably most highly dependent on the:
skills and motivations of the interviewer.
The ability to remember where one learned something is known as ______ memory.
source
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a child who has developed executive function skills?
stimulus-driven
Stan is able to periodically stop reading his homework in order to assess and process whether he is comprehending the information he is reading. This advanced cognitive skill is called _____ construction
strategy
Stan is able to periodically stop reading his homework in order to assess and process whether he is comprehending the information he is reading. This advanced cognitive skill is called __________ construction
strategy
Executive function and cognitive control are terms that are
synonyms.
Reasoning, reflection, solving problems, and making decisions are all parts of:
thinking
The manipulating and transforming of information in memory is called:
thinking.
Which of the following best characterizes theory of mind?
thoughts about how one's own mental processes work and the mental processes of others
The inability to retrieve familiar information that people feel they should be able to retrieve is known as the ______ phenomenon.
tip-of-the-tongue
Prospective memory involves remembering:
to do something in the future.
True or false: Children who perform better at executive function tasks seem to also have a better understanding of theory of mind.
true
True or false: Research has shown that categorization is influenced strongly by gender
true
When thinking about thinking, a 3- to 5-year-old will often: Multiple choice question.
underestimate when mental activity is likely to take place.
When are older adults more likely to remember the source of information?
when it is important to them
The type of memory that allows individuals to manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending language is called ______ memory.
working