Chapter 8 Psychology of Adjustment

The 4 Responses of *Communication Apprehension*:

*Communication Apprehension*: anxiety caused by having to talk with others 1. *Avoidance* - choosing not to participate 2. *Withdrawal* - "clamming up" in conversation you cannot escape 3. *Disruption* - the inability to make fluent statements 4. *Over-communication* - e.g., nervous speech

quality of acting in one's own best interests by expressing one's thoughts and feelings directly

assertiveness

ability to accurately encode (express) and decode (understand) cues not using words

nonverbal sensitivity

zone surrounding someone that is felt to "belong" to them

personal space

giving into others

submissive communication (opposite of assertive comm) - submissive communicators often feel bad about themselves for being "pushovers"

goals that require two or more groups to work together to achieve mutual ends

superordinate goals

focuses on saying and getting what you want at the expense of others

aggressive communication

interactional process in which someone transmits information to someone else

interpersonal communication

disagreement between two or more people

interpersonal conflict

do men or women tend to be better encoders and decoders?

women or more nonverbally sensitive (better encoders and decoders; better at expressing and understanding) - this may stem from women being more highly motivated - thus, anyone can improve their nonverbal skills

interactional process of sending messages that takes place via technology

electronically mediated communication

information received from multiple channels simultaneously - hear what is said - see facial expressions, body lang, gestures - experience eye contact - sometimes feel the person's touch

face to face communication

which form of communication allows you to communicate a message through multiple channels simultaneously?

face to face communication - other forms of communication usually allow you to communicate through only one channel (ex. on the phone, only through words)

Interpersonal Communication

interactional process in which one person sends a message to another - involves at least two people - it is a process involving a series of actions - it is not a "one way," but bi-directional and interactional

mindful activity requiring one to select and organize information, interpret, and respond

listening

any stimulus that interferes with accurately expressing or understanding information

noise

the transmission of meaning from one person to another through means or symbols other than words

nonverbal communication

form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands

obedience

set of vocal cues other than the content of the verbal message itself

paralanguage

What did Solomon Asch's study show?

people conformed easily to wrong answers given by others in a mock perception test.

polygraphs monitor...

polygraphs monitor *autonomic arousal* such as heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, perspiration, and galvanic skin conductance -validity of polygraph testing is questionable; with high error rates

who has less personal space- men or women?

women

What's the perception of eye contact among European Americans? For other cultures?

- Among European Americans, *high levels of eye contact* are associated with *effective social skills and credibility*. - However, eye contact is judged as *offensive by other cultures* (e.g., Native American tribes).

preference for amount of personal space depends on:

- nature of the relationship - social norms & culture - specific situations - social status

Although technology offers convenience, there are basic rules of etiquette for cell use

- quiet your phone when it will disturb others - keep call short - keep calls out of earshot of others

Messages are most effective when:

1. *Two-sided arguments* are used. This also increases credibility. 2. Persuaders use *emotional appeals* to shift attitudes. 3. They *create positive feelings* in the receiver.

sources of noise include the following factors:

1. *environmental factors*: (ex. loud music) 2. *physical factors*: (ex. poor vision) 3. *physiological factors*: (ex. medication)

General Principles of Nonverbal Communication

1. It conveys *emotions*: facial expressions and body posture can convey how we feel without words 2. It is *multi-channeled*: we use facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, vocal tone, and body language. 3. It is *ambiguous*: body language can be difficult to interpret 4. It may *contradict* verbal messages: we may say one thing, but our body conveys something different. 5. It is *culture-bound*: nonverbal signals vary from one culture to another

Receiver Factors

1. Mood (optimistic vs. pessimistic) 2. The receiver's Need for Cognition 3. Forewarning, which reduces the impact of arguments on receivers 4. Receivers are harder to persuade when the message content is incompatible with existing beliefs

Elements of Nonverbal Communication

1. Personal Space - proxemics - personal space 2. Facial Expression - convey basic emotions recognized by people around the world - display rules- govern the expression of emotions in public 3. Eye Contact 4. Body Language 5. Touch

1. Major cause of break ups? 2. What enhances satisfaction in relationships?

1. Poor Communication 2. Good Communication

For the central route to override the peripheral route,...

1. The receiver must be motivated to process the persuasive message. 2. Receivers must be able to grasp the persuasive message.

context can include...

1. physical environment 2. how the convo takes place 3. any of the ways individuals are influenced by their situation (the participants' history, relationship, current mood, cultural background, etc.) context: environment in which communication takes place

who touches more often- female-female pairs or male-male pairs?

Female-female pairs touch more often than do male-male pairs.

True or False: Nonverbal cues that actually indicate deception are often different from those most people believe indicate deception.

True ex. liars often say less, not more - liars are not necessarily good "storytellers" and include *less unusual content* in stories - liars are more tense and make a more negative impression on the listener

_____________ refers to the study of interpersonal space. a. Proxemics b. Linguistics c. Proteomics d. Heuristics

a. Proxemics

In which of the following situations do you think Kiara's zone of personal space is likely to be the smallest? a. Standing near the stage at a packed concert b. Using the ATM at the bank c. Playing in the ocean at the beach d. Standing in line at the grocery store

a. Standing near the stage at a packed concert

When using a video messaging service (e.g. Skype), the participants are most likely using multiple channels simultaneously. a. True b. False

a. True - with vid messaging such as skype, the message is received by the receiver through both *sight* & *sound*

Generally, the most productive style for managing conflict is a. collaboration. b. compromise. c. accommodation. d. avoidance.

a. collaboration.

Meijer and Verschuere (2015) note that although the polygraph is called a "lie detector" by many, it is really a(n) ________________. a. emotion detector b. expression detector c. criminality apparatus d. lie apparatus

a. emotion detector

Researchers suggest that avoidance and withdrawal tactics are effective strategies for coping with communication apprehension, but ONLY a. in the short term. b. in intimate relationships. c. when used consistently. d. when used in same-gender relationships.

a. in the short term.

When your professor is talking to you about your midterm grade, you see one of your very attractive classmates outside. All of a sudden it is difficult for you to follow your professor's explanation of the rubric. This type of miscommunication is called a. noise. b. context. c. literal content. d. background.

a. noise.

In the beginning stages of a relationship with a person of the same sex, _______________. a. women typically disclose more than men b. men often disclose more than women c. there is very little reciprocal self-disclosure d. men tend to disclose more about negative emotions

a. women typically disclose more than men

style in which a person is uncomfortable with conflict and gives in easily

accomodating

a distinct facial expression that occurs in ambiguous (difficult to interpret)situations where perceived threats are unclear.

anxiety

beliefs and feelings about people, objects, and ideas

attitudes

style in which a person tries to keep away from conflict

avoiding/withdrawing

Nonverbal cues are most informative when they are accompanied by verbal messages and are ________________. a. relatively ambiguous b. in a familiar context c. multichanneled d. contradictory

b. in a familiar context

Active listening consists of ______________________. a. paying careful attention to what is being said b. mindful processing c. both paying careful attention and mindful processing d. None of these are true.

c. both paying careful attention and mindful processing

Voluntarily sharing personal information in a conversation with another person is referred to as ______________. a. empathy b. clarification c. self-disclosure d. self-actualization

c. self-disclosure

There are no nonverbal cues in computer-mediated communication as there are in face-to-face conversations. Therefore, it is important to do which of the following when composing a professional email? a. Provide clarifying details. b. Choose words carefully. c. Describe feelings. d. All of these are true.

d. All of these are true.

Suppose you are asked to give a guest lecture in your school's orientation program for new students. Which of the following is NOT likely to promote effective listening, and should thus be avoided by students? a. Paraphrasing the speaker's message b. Asking the other person for clarification c. Attending to the other person's nonverbal signals d. Assuming a body posture with arms and legs crossed

d. Assuming a body posture with arms and legs crossed

A polygraph machine does NOT measure which of the following? a. Skin conductance b. Blood pressure c. Respiration d. Neural activity

d. Neural activity

Which of the following is not a component of the interpersonal communication process? a. The sender b. The receiver c. The channel d. The monitor

d. The monitor

Interpersonal conflict ____________________. a. is inherently a good thing b. is inherently bad for relationships c. should be suppressed if at all possible d. can lead to a variety of good outcomes

d. can lead to a variety of good outcomes

Hernani wants to change his assertive script. He has decided to talk about rewards and punishments with his partner, who is helping Hernani change his behavior. In this case, Hernani is focused on the rules of ____________________. a. description b. expression c. specificity d. consequences

d. consequences

set of norms that govern the appropriate display of emotions in a culture

display rules

personal space varies by 2 factors:

- sex - power

What factors is eye contact affected by?

1. status 2. race 3. gender

Do men or women tend to disclose more?

Women tend to disclose more information than men do (especially in same gender friendships)

involves the communication arguments and information intended to change another person's attitudes - changing people's attitudes and ideas

persuasion

device that records fluctuations in physiological arousal as a person answers questions

polygraph

the more you like someone, the more you like being physically close to that person- true or false

true

the size of your preferred personal space is related to the following factors:

- cultural background, social status, personality, age, gender -physical & psychological; depends on the situation and the nature of the relationship

Barriers to Effective Communication:

1. *Defensiveness*: excessive concern with protecting oneself from being hurt 2. *Ambushing*: listening carefully only to then verbally attack the speaker 3. *Self-Preoccupation*: being so self-absorbed the other person cannot equally participate

5 Steps for Making Successful "Small Talk"

1. Indicate you are open to conversation by commenting on your surroundings. 2. Introduce yourself. 3. Select a topic others can relate to. 4. Keep the conversation ball rolling. 5. Make a smooth exit.

Dealing Constructively With Conflict

1. Make communication honest and open. 2. Exhibit trust. 3. Use specific behavior to describe another person's annoying habits rather than general statements about their personality. 4. Avoid "loaded" words, such as "always, never, every time" 5. Use a (+) approach to help the other person "save face" - instead of using conflict to build trust, we have the tendency to use conflict to destroy trust by having it in public 6. Limit Complaints to recent behavior and to current situation 7. Assume Responsibility for your own feelings and preferences 8. Try to use an assertive communication style (as opposed to aggressive)

Benefits of Self Disclosure

1. Sharing problems with others plays a key role in mental health. 2. Self-disclosure helps build relationships. - It allows you to be known and seen, to develop closeness & emotional intimacy 3. Emotional self-disclosures lead to feelings of closeness. 4. Self-disclosure in romantic relationships is associated with relationship satisfaction. - Partners feel closer to you and unique

Tips for effective listening

1. Signal your interest in the speaker by using nonverbal cues. - Face the speaker squarely. - Lean toward him or her. - Try not to cross arms and legs. - Maintain eye contact. 2. Hear the other person out before you respond. (James 1:19) 3. Engage in "active listening" by: - Asking for clarification if information is ambiguous. -Paraphrasing what the person said by restating the speaker's main points to ensure you have interpreted correctly. 4. Pay attention to the other's nonverbal cues.

Steps in Assertiveness Training

1. Understand what assertive communication is - Don't forget about nonverbal cues 2. Monitor your assertive communication - Identify when you are not assertive, find out who intimidates you, on what topics, and in which situations. 3. Observe a model's assertive communication 4. Practice assertive communication by using: - *Covert rehearsal*- imagine using assertiveness in a situation that requires it. - *Role-playing*- ask a friend to play the role of an antagonist so you can practice. 5. Adopt an assertive attitude

Styles of Managing Conflict

2 Dimensions (Concern for Self and Concern for Others) underlie 5 Distinct Patterns of Managing Conflict 1. *Avoiding/Withdrawing*: low concern for self and others 2. *Accommodating*: low concern for self, high concern for others 3. *Competing/Forcing*: high concern for self, low concern for others 4. *Compromising*: moderate concern for self and for others 5. *Collaborating*: high concern for self and others

What does an "open" posture indicate? What does a "closed" posture indicate?

An "open" posture (e.g., arms uncrossed and down at sides) conveys a relaxed state. A "closed" posture (arms crossed) conveys defensiveness or tension.

How does self-disclosure change over the course of a relationship?

At the beginning, there are high levels of mutual self-disclosure, which taper off as the relationship becomes established. In established relationships, disclosures are not necessarily reciprocated. Movement away from reciprocal self-disclosures in established relationships occurs for two reasons: 1. There is more of a need for support than a reciprocal disclosure from the other person. 2. The need for privacy outweighs the need for mutual self-disclosure.

What do long gazes of eye contact indicate in a positive context? In a negative context?

In a positive context (e.g., romantic partners), long gazes signal loving feelings, but In a negative context (e.g., road rage), long gazes are interpreted as stares, and they make people uncomfortable.

Peripheral route vs. Central route

Peripheral Route: not mindful processing Central Route: mindful processing - more effective, longer lasting, better predictor of behavior

According to research, which of the following cues is associated with dishonesty? a. Speaking with a higher than normal pitch b. Speaking slowly c. Giving relatively long answers to questions d. Lack of eye contact

a. Speaking with a higher than normal pitch

style in which a person will do virtually anything to emerge victorious from a confrontation

competing/forcing

style in which a person is willing to negotiate and meet the other person halfway

compromising

Expressing your thoughts directly and honestly without trampling on other people is a description of which communication style? a. Aggressive b. Empathic c. Submissive d. Assertive

d. Assertive

study of people's use of interpersonal space

proxemics

voluntary act of sharing one's own personal information with another person

self-disclosure

People often fail to use privacy protections because of optimistic bias....

the assumption that their own online privacy is fine but others are of risk.

our thoughts about a persuasive message are most important in determining whether attitudes will change according to...

the elaboration likelihood model

What are some ways we can work towards *Reducing Prejudice*?

1. *Cognitive Strategies*-- make an effort to override stereotypes by using controlled processing. 2. *Intergroup contact* - superordinate goals: goals that require two or more groups to work together to achieve mutual ends, this can reduce intergroup hostility

How is cross-gender touch interpreted by females? by males?

Cross-gender touch is interpreted as *support by females*, but as *power or sexual interest by males.*

There are 4 Interpersonal Distance Zones that are appropriate for encounters in American Culture:

Zone 1: Intimate Distance Zone --> the smallest zone (0 to 18 inches); for parents & children, lovers & partners Zone 2: Personal Distance Zone --> for close friend (18 inches to 4 feet) Zone 3: Social Distance Zone --> for co-workers (4 feet to 12 feet) Zone 4: Public Distance Zone --> strangers, actors on a stage, and distance maintained between ourselves and important public officials (12 feet or more)

Which of the following statements regarding disclosure among men and women is NOT true? a. In the United States, females tend to disclose less within same-gender friendships relative to males. b. In the United States, females share more personal information with same-gender friends than males do. c. In the United States, males tend to share more nonpersonal information in email messages relative to females. d. In the United States, males with a traditional gender-role identity tend not to disclose as much information.

a. In the United States, females tend to disclose less within same-gender friendships relative to males.

The MOST effective approach to conflict management is ____________________. a. collaborating b. competing c. compromising d. accommodating

a. collaborating

____________ is acting in your own best interests by expressing your thoughts and feelings directly and honestly. a. Aggression b. Assertiveness c. Attribution d. Egocentrism

b. Assertiveness

Which of the following is not an aspect of nonverbal communication? a. Facial expressions b. Homogamy c. Posture d. Gestures

b. Homogamy

Research findings on gender and self-disclosure suggest which of the following? a. Females consistently disclose more than males. b. In an other-gender relationship, self-disclosure is relatively equal for men and for women. c. Men generally disclose more personal information and feelings than women do. d. The gender disparity in self-disclosure is consistent across cultures.

b. In an other-gender relationship, self-disclosure is relatively equal for men and for women.

In order to deal constructively with an interpersonal conflict, one should do which of the following? a. Monitor one's use of manipulation. b. Limit complaints to the present situation. c. Assume some responsibility for the other person's feelings. d. Use general statements about the other person's personality.

b. Limit complaints to the present situation.

Using her phone, Melissa called Jaime from the bar. The call did not last long, as the music in the bar was too loud and Jaime could not hear Melissa. The loud music is an example of which key element of the communication process? a. The message b. Noise c. The channel d. The sender

b. Noise

Which of the following is likely to be LEAST effective in initiating a conversation with a stranger? a. Comment on your surroundings. b. Select an obscure topic. c. Introduce yourself. d. Keep the conversational ball rolling by elaborating on the initial or a related topic.

b. Select an obscure topic.

Thuy has low self-esteem. A friend urged Thuy to join Facebook to help her reconnect with friends from high school and form new connections with others. Which of the following is most likely to happen, based on the chapter you read? a. Thuy will worry about hurting others' feelings. b. Thuy's self-disclosure will be too high in negativity and lead to undesired reactions. c. Facebook will be too threatening to engage in self-disclosure. d. Thuy will form more new, meaningful friendships on Twitter.

b. Thuy's self-disclosure will be too high in negativity and lead to undesired reactions.

Paraphrasing is an important aspect of a. nonverbal communication. b. active listening. c. communication apprehension. d. assertiveness.

b. active listening.

Suppose your friend sends you a text when she is outside your dorm building. In this case, the element of communication being demonstrated is ________________. a. sender b. channel c. message d. stimulus

b. channel

Individualistic cultures tend to ____________ as a conflict management strategy. a. promote conflict avoidance b. encourage direct confrontations c. encourage indirect confrontations d. downplay the importance of conflicts

b. encourage direct confrontations

Adam is speaking very rapidly as he gives his oral presentation in class. His paralanguage most likely conveys his _________ in front of class. a. frustration b. nervousness c. uncertainty d. excitement

b. nervousness

When people engage in pseudolistening, it is usually due to a. ambushing. b. self-preoccupation. c. motivational distortion. d. defensiveness.

b. self-preoccupation.

In the United States, women tend to gaze at others more than men do. However, these gender differences in eye contact are often confounded by _____________. a. attractiveness b. status c. culture d. deception

b. status

Helen hates it when Celia doesn't replace the empty roll of toilet paper, but she's never told her this, because she doesn't want to make waves in their relationship. Besides, she hopes Celia will eventually realize the toilet paper is out when she most needs it. Helen's behavior exemplifies which of the following styles of managing conflict? a. Competition b. Compromise c. Avoidance d. Collaboration

c. Avoidance

Which of the following is NOT considered a cue of paralanguage? a. Volume b. Accent c. Content d. Grunt

c. Content

Which of the following types of self-disclosure is most likely to lead to feelings of intimacy between individuals? a. Understand b. Apply c. Emotional d. Attributional

c. Emotional

___________ communication involves giving in to others at one's own expense; ____________ communication involves getting what one wants at the expense of others' rights or feelings. a. Assertive; aggressive b. Submissive; assertive c. Submissive; aggressive d. Aggressive; assertive

c. Submissive; aggressive

Research shows that individuals from a variety of cultures a. agree on the facial expressions that correspond with all emotions. b. agree on the facial expressions that correspond with fifteen basic emotions. c. agree on the facial expressions that correspond with six basic emotions. d. do not agree on the facial expressions that correspond with any emotions.

c. agree on the facial expressions that correspond with six basic emotions.

With regard to self-disclosure, it is best to a. share a lot about yourself when you first meet someone. b. share very little about yourself for a long time. c. gradually share information about yourself. d. give no personal information on a first encounter, but share a lot the next time.

c. gradually share information about yourself.

Keith likes to talk about himself and is famous for "being in love with the sound of his voice." In conversation with him, it is a challenge to take the spotlight off him and all the great things he is accomplishing in school. When analyzing his communication strategically, it is MOST accurate to say that the barrier to effective communication is Keith's _____________. a. working self-concept b. self-defensiveness c. self-preoccupation d. motivational distortion

c. self-preoccupation

The root of communication apprehension is thought to be _____________________. a. the context in which the communication is to take place b. the strength of one's physiological reactions to communication c. the interpretation of one's own physiological reactions d. the audience to whom one is going to communicate

c. the interpretation of one's own physiological reactions

anxiety caused by having to talk with others

communication apprehension

Dana is annoyed by Monique's habit of squeezing the middle of the toothpaste tube. When Dana confronted her to share her feelings of displeasure, Monique lost her temper and argued that "it is such a trivial matter" that she cannot believe she didn't even out the tube herself. Dana gave in and apologized because she did not want Monique to be upset with her. Dana's behavior demonstrates the _____________ style of managing conflict. a. compromise b. competition c. avoidance d. accommodation

d. accommodation

The conflict style that reflects low concern for self and low concern for others is a. competing/forcing. b. compromising. c. accomodating. d. avoiding/withdrawing.

d. avoiding/withdrawing.

excessive concern with protecting oneself from being hurt

defensiveness