Chapter 9
Three Elements of Organizational commitment (Porter, Steers, Mowday, and Boulian, 1974)
(1) Acceptance and belief in an organization's values (2) A willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization to help meet the goals of that organization (3) A strong desire to remain in the organization
Hawthorne effect
A change in behavior or attitudes that was the simple result of increased attention
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)
A commonly used job satisfaction instrument that assesses particular aspects of work (e.g., achievement, ability utilization) as well as scores for extrinsic satisfaction and intrinsic satisfaction
Employee engagement
A positive work-related state of mind that includes high levels of energy, enthusiasm, and identification with one's work
Progression hypothesis
A progression of withdrawal behaviors that start with tardiness, increase to absenteeism, and eventually result in a decision to quit or retire
Withdrawal behaviors
Absenteeism, turnover, tardiness, and retirement may be different manifestations of a larger construct called withdrawal
Telecommuting
Accomplishing work tasks from a distant location using electronic communication media
Work withdrawal
Action that represents an attempt by the individual to withdraw from work but maintain ties to the organization and the work role; includes lateness and absenteeism
Job withdrawal
Action that represents an individual's willingness to sever ties to an organization and the work role; includes intentions to quit or retire
Emotion
An effect or feeling, often experienced and displayed in reaction to an event or thought and accompanied by physiological changes in various systems of the body
Affective Commitment
An emotional attachment to an organization
Normative Commitment
An obligation to remain in an organization
Work-family balance
Area of research that investigates whether the satisfaction that one experiences at work is in part affected by the satisfaction that one experiences in non-work, and vice versa
Core self-evaluations
Assessments that individuals make of their circumstances; elements of core evaluations include self-esteem, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the absence of neuroticism
Work withdrawal
Attempt to withdraw from work but maintain ties to organization and work role (includes lateness and absenteeism)
Psychological contracts
Beliefs that people hold regarding terms of an exchange agreement between themselves and the organization
Occupational Commitment
Commitment to a particular occupational field; includes affective, continuance, and normative commitment
Positive affectivity (PA)
Disposition in which individuals are prone to describe themselves as cheerful, enthusiastic, confident, active, and energetic
Negative affectivity (NA)
Disposition wherein individuals are prone to experience a diverse array of negative mood states (e.g., anxiety, depression, hostility, and guilt)
Affect circumplex
Figure in which opposite emotions appear directly across from each other in the circle
Growth, Resilience, Intrinsic Motivation, and Tenacity
G.R.I.T.
Mood
Generalized feeling not identified with a particular stimulus and not sufficiently intense to interrupt ongoing thought processes
Mood
Generalized state of feeling not identified with a particular stimulus and not sufficiently intense to interrupt ongoing thought processes
Organizational Disidentification
Individuals may also take pains to distance themselves from the organization for which they work
Facet satisfaction
Information related to specific facets or elements of job satisfaction
Emotion
Normally associated with specific events or occurrences that are intense enough to disrupt thought processes
Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
One of the most extensively researched and documented job satisfaction instruments; assesses satisfaction with five distinct areas: the work itself, supervision, people, pay, and promotion
Overall satisfaction
Overall assessment of job satisfaction that results either from mathematically combining scores based on satisfaction with specific important aspects of work or a single overall evaluative rating of the job
Continuance Commitment
Perceived cost of leaving an organization
Job satisfaction
Positive attitude or emotional state resulting from appraisal of one's job
Job satisfaction
Positive attitude or emotional state resulting or emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experience
Meta-analytic findings
Positive effects of employment on these facets of life and negative effects of unemployment on mental health and well-being (McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg, & Kinicki, 2005)
Organizational Commitment
Psychological and emotional attachment an individual feel to a relationship, organization, goal, or occupation
Commitment
Psychological and emotional attachment an individual feels to a relationship, an organization, a goal, or an occupation
Prospective emotion
Reaction that results from a consideration of the tasks one anticipates doing
Retrospective emotion
Reaction that results from a consideration of the tasks one has already completed
Process emotion
Reaction that results from consideration of the tasks one is currently doing
Attitudes
Relatively stable feelings or beliefs that are directed toward specific persons, groups, ideas, jobs, or other objects
Intrinsic satisfaction
Satisfaction that derives from aspects central, or intrinsic, to the job itself, such as responsibility
Extrinsic satisfaction
Satisfaction that derives from aspects extrinsic, or external, to job tasks, such as pay or benefits
Job embeddedness
The many and varied types of commitment that individuals feel toward co-workers, teams, organizations, and careers
Organizational Identification (OID)
The process whereby individuals derive a feeling of pride and esteem from their association with an organization.
Job withdrawal
Willingness to sever ties to organization and work role (include intentions to quit or retire)
Telecommuting
• Accomplishing work tasks from distant location using electronic communications • # of telecommuters will continue to rise o By 2010, that number had risen to over 26 million • Advantages to telecommuting o For many telecommuters, strategic planning skills, and self-reported productivity increase o Higher satisfaction also reported o Cut organizational costs by reducing the cost of office space
Forms of Organization Commitment (Meyer and Allen, 1997)
• Affective commitment • Continuance commitment • Normative commitment • Affective commitment is a better predictor of absenteeism and turnover then either continuance or normative commitment (Luchak and Gellatly, 2007)
Satisfaction Questionnaires - Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
• Assesses satisfaction with work itself, supervision, people, pay, & promotion • JDI also includes a separate overall satisfaction measure called the Job in General (JIG) • Disadvantages o Heavily researched but tends to be lengthy o Idiosyncratic interpretation o Broad category of "work" does not provide much information about issues such as creativity, independence, variety, or other aspects of the work itself.
Important Research Findings!!
• Barling, Kelloway, and Iverson (2003) reported that satisfying jobs are linked to fewer occupational injuries. • Harter, Schmidt, and Hayes (2002) found positive relations between employee satisfaction and customer satisfaction, productivity, profit, safety, and employee retention. • Several studies (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002; Tang & Ibrahim, 1998) reported that increased satisfaction is associated with increased organizational citizenship behavior. • Williams and colleagues (2006) found that satisfaction with pay is moderately associated with turnover intentions (.31) and actual turnover (.17). • Judge, Thoreson, Bono, and Patton (2001) found a positive correlation of a substantial magnitude (.30) between job satisfaction and task performance. • Satisfied employees are less likely to be absent from work (Johns, 1997). • Satisfied employees are less likely to be late for work (Kozlowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997). • Conte, Dean, Ringenbach, Moran, and Landy (2005) found that job satisfaction is associated with job analysis ratings: More satisfied employees give high ratings for the frequency and importance of various tasks. • Several researchers have found a positive association between job satisfaction and general life satisfaction and feelings of well-being (Warr, 1999; Wright & Cropanzano, 2000).
Psychological Contract
• Beliefs that people hold regarding the terms of an exchange agreement between them and an organization • Psychological contract breach refers to an employee's perception of the extent to which the employer has failed to fulfill promises made to the employee o Such as promotions and advancement, pay based on performance, long-term job security, sufficient power and responsibility, training opportunities, and career development
Effects of Unemployment
• Conclusions about the effects of unemployment (Warr, 2007): • (1) The psychological health of unemployed workers is poorer than that of employed workers • (2) This poorer health is the result of unemployment • (3) Unemployment often results in depression, insomnia, irritability, lack of confidence, inability to concentrate, and general anxiety
Causal Direction
• Did employee satisfaction cause profitability or did company success cause satisfaction? (Schneider, Hanges, Smith, & Salvaggio, 2003) o Increased overall job satisfaction and increased satisfaction with job security
Job Satisfaction - Brief History - 1
• Early period of job satisfaction research • Robert Hoppock (1935) o How happy were workers? o Were workers in some occupations happier than workers in other occupations? o Found both job-related and individual difference variables might influence job satisfaction • Hawthorne effect o Change in behavior or attitudes that was the simple result of increased attention
A relevant issue concerning the concept of job loss
• Economic insecurity and experience of psychological insecurity • Are all individuals equally plagued with insecure feelings as a result of the increasing phenomena of downsizing, mergers, and acquisitions? o No; Warr (2007) noted that good health, social support, and an absence of financial pressure all reduce the distress of unemployment • Effects of insecurity may actually diminish performance and motivation over time, resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy • Employees with more collectivistic values reacted more negatively to job insecurity than those with more individualistic values • Collectivistic culture > Individual culture (Probst and Lawler, 2006)
Negative influence on work-family balance
• Electronically enhanced communications o Right to disconnect law: Some countries banned after-hour work emails or messengers (e.g., France) • Prevalence of multiple roles o More roles meant more responsibility, a lesser degree of freedom and flexibility, and greater stress
Affective Commitment
• Emotional attachment to an organization • High level of commitment = enjoy the relationship with organization = want to stay • Job condition + Met expectation = ___________
Why organizational identification is important?
• First, it is one way in which people come to define themselves • Second, OI is associated with a number of important organizational outcomes, including employee satisfaction, low turnover, OCD, leadership, perceptions of justice, and meanings of work
Satisfaction
• Historically, most satisfaction researchers have tended to acknowledge only the cognitive aspect of attitude • Mood and emotions are associated with work behaviors, including OCB, task performance, creative problem solving, and CWB such as absenteeism and turnover
Genetics and Job Satisfaction
• In a 1986 study, disposition in adolescence predicted job satisfaction as long as 50 years later • Additional research has been conducted in this controversial area, but considerably more research is necessary on the links between genetics and job satisfaction
The Time Course of Emotional Experience
• In the past, looked at the correlation between satisfaction and a behavior at one point in time and across a number of individuals. • There are two problems o Between-person design vs. within-person design o Measured at one point in time vs. longitudinal (experience sampling)
Work-Related Attitudes & Emotions from Cross-Cultural Perspective
• Individualism & job satisfaction "+" correlated in some cultures, while collectivism & job satisfaction "+" correlated in other cultures • Fit between the design of work and cultural values as a possible determinant of job satisfaction • Degree of "fit" related to emotional reactions to work and subsequent work behaviors o Important for multinational organizations to consider
Psychological Contract - 1
• Influence of psychological contract breach were broken; lower work attitudes and job performance are likely into three categories: • (1) Affect (contract violation and mistrust) • (2) Attitudes (job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions) • (3) Performance (actual turnover, organizational citizenship behavior, and in-role performance
Measurement of Jobs Satisfaction - Facet Satisfaction
• Information related to specific elements of job satisfaction
Additional Issues of Attitudes, Emotions, and Work
• Job Loss • Telecommuting • Work-Family Balance • Psychological Contract
Work Attitude
• Job Satisfaction • Organizational Commitment • Organizational Identification • Employee Engagement
Reasons for the Effects
• Job loss o Reduces income and daily variety o Suspension of typical goal setting guiding day-to-day activity o Fewer decisions to make o New skills not developed o Social relationships can change radically
Emotional Labor (Grandley, 2000)
• Many companies have emotion display rules • The required expression of certain emotions at work is called emotional labor, recognizing that it can take effort for employees to maintain the appearance of positive feelings. • Emotional labor o Deep acting (positive emotions) o Surface acting (negative emotions) - emotional dissonance
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)
• Measures job satisfaction on 20 five-item scales: • Ability Utilization • Achievement • Activity • Advancement • Authority • Company Policies • Compensation • Co-workers • Creativity • Independence • Moral Values • Recognition • Responsibility • Security • Social Status • Social Service • Supervision--Human Relations • Supervision--Technical • Variety • Working Conditions
Organizational Commitment - 1
• Meyer, Allen, and Smith's (1993) Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ): six items for each of the three commitment dimensions • Example Items o (a) I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization (affective commitment); o (b) It would be very hard for me to leave my organization right now, even if I wanted to (continuance commitment); o (c) This organization deserves my loyalty (normative commitment). • Affective Commitment - High in job satisfaction, job performance, and turnover intention • Continuance Commitment - High in turnover
Normative Commitment
• Obligation to remain in the organization • The degree you feel obligated to the organization or believe that staying is the right thing to do (ought to stay) • Personal values + Felt Obligation = ___________
Negative affectivity (NA)
• Often referred to as neuroticism • Individuals prone to experience diverse array of negative mood states
Positive affectivity (PA)
• Often to as extraversion • Individuals prone to describe themselves
Continuance Commitment
• Perceived cost of leaving the organization • The degree to which you believe that leaving the organization would be costly • High level of continuance commitment may stay in organization because you feel you need to stay • Benefit + Job Available = ___________
Dispositions and Affectivity - 1
• Personality characteristics likely to influence moods, but not necessarily discrete emotions • Job satisfaction and affectivity have reciprocal influences on each other • Meta-analysis found that PA and NA had moderate relationships with some facets of job satisfaction (.31 & .28, respectively)
Employee Engagement
• Positive work-related state of mind that includes high levels of energy, enthusiasm, and identification with one's work • Overlaps positively with job sat., org. commitment, and job involvement • But is distinct from these constructs and has important organizational implications (i.e., increased engagement on the part of workers is related to increased task and contextual performance)
Telecommuting - 1
• Possible negative effects o Worker alienation o Loss of important sense of identity o Promotion less likely o Rapid disillusionment with lack of promotional opportunities
Organizational Identification (OID)
• Process whereby individuals derive a feeling of pride and esteem from their association with an organization. • Individuals may also take pains to distance themselves from the organization for which they work—this would be called organizational disidentification.
Work-Family Balance
• Research investigating whether satisfaction one experiences at work is in part affected by satisfaction one experiences in non-work and vice versa • Organizational culture that specifically supports family values is very important • Work-family enrichment (Greenhaus and Powell, 2006): The extent to which experiences in one role improve the quality of life in the other role
Measurement of Jobs Satisfaction - Overall Satisfaction
• Results either from mathematically combining scores based on satisfaction or a single overall evaluative rating of the job • "Faces" scale was developed almost 60 years ago as a single-item measure of job satisfaction • Judge, Thoreson, and colleagues (2001) described a simple five-item scale that appears to work well as a measure of overall satisfaction: o I feel fairly satisfied with my present job. o Most days I am enthusiastic about my work. o Each day at work seems like it will never end. o I find real enjoyment in my work. o I consider my job to be rather unpleasant.
Job Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction
• Studies of life satisfaction have found that it correlates with job satisfaction (Bowling and Hammond, 2008) • Three hypotheses o Spillover hypothesis - one effect from one domain, assumes positive correlation o Compensation hypothesis - assumes negative correlation o Segmentation hypothesis - zero correlation; no relationship b/t job sat and life sat
Important Research Findings
• The effect of negative environmental events on mood is five times stronger than the effect of positive events (Miner, Glomb, & Hulin, 2005). • Positive experiences at work reduce end-of-day feelings of fatigue (Zohar, Tzischinski, & Epstein, 2003) and increase general feelings of well-being (Harris, Daniels, & Briner, 2003). • CWB is much more likely to result from momentary (state) hostility or experiences of injustice than from stable personality characteristics (Judge, Scott, & Ilies, 2006). • Insomnia at night contributes to negative emotions (hostility and fatigue) at work on subsequent days(Scott & Judge, 2006). • Employees experience more positive emotions when interacting with co-workers and customers than when interacting with their supervisors (Bono, Foldes, Vinson, & Muros, 2007).
Different Effects of Unemployment
• The employed > The unemployed (Winefield and Tiggemann, 1990 & 2005) o Self-esteem, optimism, and internal locus of control • Experience of unemployment is likely to be qualitatively different for younger workers than for older workers • Individuals who were higher on core self-evaluation engaged in a job search with greater intensity and were more likely to find new employment. • Experience of unemployment is likely to be qualitatively different depending on "core self-evaluation"
Job Satisfaction - Brief History - 2
• The years between 1935 and 1955: o Closely linked to the prevention of labor unrest in the form of strikes and productivity o Asked workers about their most important needs and the extent to which those needs were being met • In the late 1950s, very different conclusions o Brayfield and Crockett (1955) o Herzberg, Mausner, Peterson, and Capwell (1957)
Research Findings - Telecommuting
• There is a downside to higher-intensity telecommuting (more than 2.5 days a week) (Golden, 2006) o It seems harm relationships with co-workers (but not with supervisors) • Telecommuting was found to be more beneficial for men than women and for those who had a separate room in the home in which to work (Hartig, Kylin, an Johnsonn, 2007)
Dispositions and Affectivity
• Two dispositions that have received a great deal of attention are negative affectivity (NA) and positive affectivity (PA)
Satisfaction Questionnaires - Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ): (Weiss, Dawis, England, and Lofquist, 1967)
• Whereas the JDI uses 72 items to assess five areas of satisfaction, the MSQ assesses more refined aspects of work (e.g., achievement, ability utilization) with five items per area. • Calculates "extrinsic" & "intrinsic" satisfaction scores