Chapter 9: Groups in the Organization

Group

- A group and its activities reflect more than simply the interaction among its members. A group has a structure and is situated in an environment, that also has a structure. - Group environments provide inputs and feedback, and receive outputs (the open system model). - Groups have: 1) a composition (e.g., size, age or gender) 2) internal processes (e.g., leadership or conformity) and 3) a structure

Reference Groups

- A reference group has been described as "any group to which you refer your beliefs, attitudes, or behavior." --- People refer attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviors to reference groups, which serve both normative and informational purposes. - Leon Festinger's theory of social comparison processes addresses how we compare ourselves with relevant others. --- Festinger believed that under ambiguous circumstances, people turn to others for clarification and norms about how to behave, and the more ambigious the situation, the greater the likelihood of turning to others. --- Similarity raises the influence of others on our own beliefs and behavior. --- Festinger recognized the influence of status for reference groups and figures, even proposing a unidirectional "upward drive" in our comparisons.

Aggregates

-Aggregates are collections of individuals who are physically proximate at the same time. These could be an aggregate in the Stone Building elevator or a crowd at an FSU football game. Examples are: 1) Audience effects 2) Co-action effects 3) Crowd effects 4) Fads -Aggregates and cohorts do influence behavior

Cohesiveness

-Cohesiveness is central to the study of groups. It is considered vital in group decision-making, group performance, goal attainment, identity, and member satisfaction. -Cohesiveness is the degree to which group members are attached to each other and are motivated to stay in the group -- group "we-feeling" -Producing group cohesiveness can result from: 1) Time spent together 2) Severity of initiation 3) Group size 4) Gender of members 5) External threats 6) Previous successes

Cost-Benefit Analysis 2

-Costs include: 1) Time 2) Effort 3) Energy 4) Financial investments 5) Confrontational situations with others, especially when disagreements occur over goals or courses of action 6) Interacting with unattractive people - while other benefits of the group remain attractive 7) Foregone opportunities (e.g., you can only attend one university at a time or normally work one job at a time

Storming - Stage 2

-Decisions don't come easily within group. Team members vie for position as they attempt to establish themselves in relation to other team members and the leader, who might receive challenges from team members. -Clarity of purpose increases but plenty of uncertainties persist. Cliques and factions form and there may be power struggles. The team needs to be focused on its goals to avoid becoming distracted by relationships and emotional issues. -Compromises may be required to enable progress. Leader coaches (similar to Situational Leadership® 'Selling' mode

Command Group

a manager and his/her immediate subordinates

Formal Group

A designated work group defined by the organization's structures.

Informal Group

A group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined: appears in response to the need for social contact

4) A common fate.

A very important difference is that groups typically and actively choose their goals, doing so consciously as a group

What Is a group?

"Groups are open and complex systems that interact with the smaller systems (I.e., the members) embedded within them and the larger systems (e.g., organizations) within which they are embedded. Groups have fuzzy boundaries that both distinguish them from and connect them to their members and their embedding contexts." - A team or group is two or more people working together to achieve common goals. -Members of a group are usually dependent on each other and have regular interactions in order to reach a goal. -They actively work together as a unit in order to fulfill a purpose. -Organizations rely on groups to accomplish specific tasks. -An effective group is one that achieves high levels of task performance, member satisfactions and team viability

How do we choose reference groups?

-Desired similarity in terms of anticipatory groups -How informative the group may be on issues important to use -Prestige or power of the group in society -Sheer propinquity -The groups that you belong to help define who you are.

Group Composition

-Groups vary in their membership, for example, in the age, ethnicity, or gender of group members. -Membership motivation include members motivates to join groups, such the need of power and security. -membership composition can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. -Homogeneous teams are formed for tasks that are standard and routine. -Heterogeneous teams are formed for tasks that are non-routine and require diverse skills, opinions and behaviors. -When members share many characteristics in common, pressures toward conformity may increase because members expect their compadres to hold similar expectations, beliefs, and attitudes. -Group dysfunctions, such as "groupthink," may then occur because the narrow range of opinions expressed in homogeneous groups leads members to believe that deviant opinions are very rare and will not be tolerated. -The statuses that group members hold in the "outside world" (often called diffuse status characteristics) may influence how members interact. -People may defer to older members, or to those with more education or prestigious occupations.

Effect of cohesiveness on group productivity

-High Performance Norms + High Cohesiveness= High Productivity -Low Performance Norms +High Cohesiveness= Low Productivity -High Performance Norms +Low Cohesiveness= Moderate Productivity -Low Performance Norms + Low Cohesiveness= Moderate to High Productivity

Forming - Stage 1

-High dependence on leader for guidance and direction. Little agreement on team aims other than received from leader. Individual roles and responsibilities are unclear. Leader must be prepared to answer lots of questions about the team's purpose, objectives and external relationships. -Processes are often ignored. Members test tolerance of system and leader. Leader directs (similar to Situational Leadership® 'Telling' mode).

Social Influence

-How thoughts, feelings and behaviours of one person are influenced by imagined, implied or actual presence of others. -Compliance --- When external behaviour does not reflect internal 'real' opinions --- Adjusting one's behavior to align with the norms of the group -Conformity --- Changing inner opinions as result of non-direct pressure from other people

Group Size

-In groups of less than 5 members, there will be more personal discussion and more complete participation. -As group size grows there are several advantages and disadvantages: -Advantages: more potential human resources that are available to perform the work and this can boost performance. -Dysfunctions: 1) more difficult to participate effectively. 2)communication become difficult. 3) there is a tendency to split into subgroups. 4) disagreements may occur more easily. 5) larger groups tend toward less informal interaction and their members view them as "less friendly" - group satisfaction may decline. -The larger the group, the less satisfied members tend to be with their membership. To produce more friendly relations--or even to get tasks accomplished--large groups commonly create smaller subgroups.

3) Interdependent AND common goals that require membership coordination

-Interdependence means that people cannot achieve goals individually, but must do so as group members. -Interdependent goals require coordination among the membership to achieve them. *They require the coordinated efforts of at least two people working together. *Interdependent goals imply a division of labor so that each member has a unique and specific task, i.e., a specialized task. -It is the interdependence and interlocking roles that either the group creates (in more informal groups) or that form part of a pre-existing structure (in formal groups) that meld people together into a unity.

Interpersonal Sources

-Interpersonal sources of group cohesion depend on the characteristics of individual members. The group is cohesive because members are attracted to one another. Some major sources include: 1) Member similarity - Demographic, attitudes, values, and beliefs, situational. 2) Member attractiveness- Various sources, e.g., prestige or social class, physical attractiveness, pleasant, supportive, other warm personal characteristics 3) Member acceptance. Members make it clear that they like the recruits (and other members). 4) Propinquity. Spatial contiguity is important because people interact more with contiguous individuals.

Group Size 2

-Issues to be considered include opportunities: 1)to express individual viewpoints; 2)to develop social relationships; 3)to ensure everyone participates; 4)for individual recognition. -Group size can facilitate performance or it can create a process loss (i.e., members perform below their potential). 1)Individual performance levels can decline with group size perhaps due to social loafing 2)Sometimes this phenomenon is called "free riding," where members who do relatively little share in the rewards of those who are highly productive. -Better coordination and individual feedback can minimize social loafing.Incentives for social loafing (e.g., members receive the same benefits regards of participation) increase it.

Why norms are enforced?

-It facilitates the group's survival -If it increases the predictability of group member's behavior -If it reduces embarrassing interpersonal problems of group members -If it allows members to express the central values of the group and classify what is distinctive about the group's identity -Norms can be prescriptive or proscriptive . -Group norms can be positive, helping group meet its objectives. -Or negative hindering the group effectiveness

Cohort

-Members of a cohort share at least one common characteristic or experience. -Demographers usually reserve the term for people who have a common experience at a singular point in time, such as a birth cohort ("generation") or students who entered Tallinn University of Technology as freshmen in the Fall of 2009. -Members of a cohort may never meet one another, may never even gather in the same place, and generally do not think of themselves as "group members." Members of a cohort may be quite diverse (are all soccer moms the same?) because other characteristics or experiences cross-cut what they have in common. -Cohort members may self identify with their cohort ("I'm a Generation Xer" or "I'm the soccer mom"). -This self-identification with a cohort can influence behavior through collective identification. -Politicians and market researchers are well aware of cohorts, and use them to target segments of the population for advertising and other persuasion campaigns. -Cohort experiences may also make it easier for people to get to know each other when they first meet, by providing common experiences.

Structural Sources

-Structural sources of cohesion center more around attraction to the group itself or aspects related to group tasks. -- This may be more apparent in formal than in informal groups. -Here are some possible bases: 1) Arousal - Emotional arousal (and its physiological components) tends to strengthen affiliative needs. Groups may manipulate factors that increase arousal. 2) Interdependent goals - Everyone must contribute in a specialized division of labor in order for the group to achieve its goals. 3) Common goals - Group goals coincide with member goals, thereby attracting members. -- Group goals may include a "common enemy" -- Achieving group goals lends a sense of accomplishment. 4) Emphasizing a shared identity 5) Resources- Prestige or social status , the chance to share or develop a special skil

5) Cohesiveness

-The ancient 1968 Cartwright and Zander definition was "the total forces attracting members to a group" (and keeping them there). Beatrice Lott in the mid-1960s defined it as the number of ties among [individual] group members. * More recent research recognizes the multi-dimensional nature of group cohesion. -Cohesivenessis a sense or spirit of group unity collectively held by the membership, i.e., as a group property, rather than some mathematical function of individual scores.

Cost-Benefit analysis

-When joining a group, or participating in its activities, individuals may engage in a cost-benefit analysis, assessing the efforts they put in to the group and the rewards they receive in return. -Rewards include: 1) Group resources, including status and prestige (not to mention real estate sales to parishioners). 2) Other goal attainments, impossible to achieve alone, e.g., the opportunity to work with students or collective bargaining for workers. 3) Socio-emotional benefits, gained from interaction with attractive others including: 4) Alleviation of loneliness. 5) A sense of belonging and contributions to one's social or collective identity.

Problems with Cohesiveness

1) Cohesive groups can tend toward surface harmony. - To avoid confrontation and other forms of ill-will members will publicly agree even when they privately disagree. 2) When group members are aware of sanctions, they engage in self-censorship either avoiding contentious topics or carefully monitoring their behavior. 3) Group members may suffer from pluralistic ignorance. 4) Surface harmony combined with perceived group enemies can contribute to group insularity or insulation, the tendency of group members to interact primarily witheach other and to avoid cross-group contacts. 5) When members interact only with one another, they may begin to feel invulnerable and superior to those who are not group members. - The more insulated the group, the less corrective feedback they receive. 6) Given such self-protective strategies, members can propose extreme ideas and face neither challenges nor corrections from other group members or from outsiders. - Problems may be ignored or glossed over. The group is now on a one-way trip to bad decision-making. - Group failures become interpreted as enmity from the outside environment and the cycle continues.

Explanations of Conformity

1) Informational social influence - Support information received from others because removes ambiguities in social situation - Sherif's social reality hypothesis 2) Normative social influence - Desire to be liked and accepted by others in the group - Increased dependency among group members leads to increased conformity rates 3) Referent informational influence - Conform because we are group members, and not to avoid social disapproval - Social identity perspective - Conform to group norms through self-categorisation --- Seek out group norm to minimise difference within the in-group and maximise difference with out-group

What makes a group attractive?

1) Resources- the group offers rewards or an ability to meet goals congruent with the individual's. - Prestige or power can be a very importance resource for many people. 2) Acceptance - other people in the group find the member personally attractive and express this. 3) Propinquity - the group is convenient, nearby. Very often we interact with the same people who are close by on a continuous basis. 4) Active Recruitment - group members want the individual to join. 5) Similarity - Similarity can be based on demographics and life cycle variables, on values and attitudes, or on circumstances. - Interacting with similar others is intrinsically rewarding.

Social Roles

1) Social roles emerge from groups. - The division of labor in groups is the major cause of creating social roles. 2) A role is a social position with an accompanying, attached set of rights, duties, and scripts. 3) The most critical aspect of roles is that they transcend individuals because they are social positions: - anyone who occupies a specific role is expected to display a minimal level of its scripts and duties; - some role requirements are codified and formal, others are informal.

Group Characteristics

1) members have a self-definition as a group member 2) members are identified by others (other-definition) as a group member 3) Interdependent AND common goals that require membership coordination 4) A common fate. 5) Cohesiveness 6) Normative expectations 7) Direct interaction among members.

Formal Group Process

1)Formal groups create specialized roles and a division of labor. - Creating a specialized division of labor is a watershed development in the lives of most groups. - Ideally, it makes the group perform more effectively. - In practice, it serves to create specialized role positions that take on a momentum of their own. - Once specialized roles are created, the group recruits individuals, possibly from outside the group, to fill them (the fraternity historian; the webmaster for distance learning, the assistant coach on a sports team). - A created role may begin to seem so important that members forget why it was first created, only that it must be filled. 2)Groups develops a status hierarchy, or a clearly demarcated chain of command and levels of status.

Group Structure

1)Group structure" often refers to the set of interlocking roles played by group members and the norms and expectations that guide group behavior. - Groups' structure are often organized in predictable patterns 2)Roles - set of behaviours expected of people who occupy certain positions 3)Norms - a consensual standard that describes what behaviours should and should not be performed in a given context 4)Status - A socially defined position or rank given to group's or group members by others

Formal and Informal Groups

1)Informal groups dissolve when all the original members leave. Formal groups survive at least one complete turnover of members. - Formal groups often have more resources and advantages than informal groups. 2)Formal group may have a group culture containing: - Codification, or some form of recorded information about a group, such as minutes or a ledger. - A history, such as a group biography, or an oral tradition of stories or accounts. - Group symbols, such as flags, mascots, flowers, or emblems. - A special group language or set of phrases known only to group members. - Group rituals, such as a special handshake, or a protocol order for meetings. - Both codified and uncodified expectations for behavior and interpersonal interaction ("we don't do that here")

Norming - Stage 3

Agreement and consensus is largely forms among team, who respond well to facilitation by leader. Roles and responsibilities are clear and accepted. Big decisions are made by group agreement. Smaller decisions may be delegated to individuals or small teams within group. Commitment and unity is strong. The team may engage in fun and social activities. The team discusses and develops its processes and working style. There is general respect for the leader and some of leadership is more shared by the team. Leader facilitates and enables (similar to the Situational Leadership® 'Participating' mode).

Bruce Tuckman's Team Development Stages

Forming -> Storming -> Norming -> Performing

Informal vs Formal

Informal --- Formal Unofficial -- Official Power&Politics -- Authority&Responsibility Person -- Position Given by group -- Delegated by management Norms -- Rules Sanctions -- Rewards&Punishments

Normative and informational reference groups

Normative reference groups set standards for behavior and evaluate performance. - Typically, these are membership or anticipatory groups. - This is clearly a reinforcement approach. 1) Recruits who "don't shape up" are refused membership. 2) Existing members may be expelled. 3) Obviously the individual must either value membership or the group's opinion for group norms to carry such potency. Informational reference groups serve as a cognitive yardstick, providing information to individuals. - Frequently this information informs the person as to whether or not they have chosen an appropriate course of action, or behaved according to standards.

Roles in the Group

When operating in a team, individuals typically fulfill several roles that fit into 3 categories: 1)Task-oriented roles: focus on behaviors that directly related to establishing and achieving the goals and tasks of the group done. 2) Relationship-oriented roles: they focus on the operation of the group and maintenance of good relationships among members. 3) Self-oriented roles: occur to meet some personal need or goal of an individual without regard for the group's problems. They often have negative influence on a group's effectiveness.

Norms

Norms: acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group's members - collectively held expectations of group functioning; - provide regularity and predictability to group functioning. - Performance related norms - Appearance norms - Informed social arrangements - Allocation resources How norms develop? - Formal - structured to perform specific tasks. - Informal - emerge naturally in response to organizational or member interests. ---- Explicit statements made by a group member ---- Critical events in the group's history ---- Primacy ---- Carry over behaviors from past situations

Roles

Roles: a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a group - Role identity: certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a role - Role perception: an individual's view on how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation - Role expectations: how others behave a person should act in a given situation - Psychological contract: an unwritten agreement that sets out what management expects from the employee, and vice versa - Role conflict: a situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations

Social Facilitation

Tendency for people to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated

Performing - Stage 4

The team is more strategically aware; the team knows clearly why it is doing what it is doing. The team has a shared vision and is able to stand on its own feet with no interference or participation from the leader. There is a focus on over-achieving goals, and the team makes most of the decisions against criteria agreed with the leader. The team has a high degree of autonomy. Disagreements occur but now they are resolved within the team positively and necessary changes to processes and structure are made by the team. The team is able to work towards achieving the goal, and also to attend to relationship, style and process issues along the way. team members look after each other. The team requires delegated tasks and projects from the leader. The team does not need to be instructed or assisted. Team members might ask for assistance from the leader with personal and interpersonal development. Leader delegates and oversees (similar to the Situational Leadership® Delegating' mode).

Social Loafing

The tendency of group members to do less than they are capable of individually, resulting in an inverse relationship between group size and individual performance

Adjourning - Stage 5

This is about completion and disengagement, both from the tasks and the group members. Individuals will be proud of having achieved much and glad to have been part of such an enjoyable group. They need to recognise what they've done, and consciously move on. Some authors describe stage 5 as "Deforming and Mourning", recognising the sense of loss felt by group members.

Group 2

Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives -Formal -Informal -Command -Task -Interest -Friendship

2) members are identified by others (other-definition) as a group member

Without other-definition, we may perceive the person as a fraud and expel them. -At the least, we may create distance mechanisms (such as ignoring the person, "rewriting history" to exclude them from the group, or literally "cutting them out of the picture.) Someone who is "in, but not of" the group is not seen as entitled to group privileges or rewards.

1) members have a self-definition as a group member

Without self-definition, the individual will lack motivation to act in the group's best interests, and may even think it silly or futile to conform with group norms. - Individuals who are compelled to be in a group lacking self-definition may even act to undermine the group. - At the least, someone can enjoy group benefits without contributing (freeloaders) because s/he does not self-define as a group member

6) Normative expectations

i.e., rules regulating member behavior or how members "should behave" -Such norms provide predictable, stable group interaction. -Groups that provide norms and evaluate behavior are often called normative reference groups or exerting normative influence. -It is the absence of such normative expectations that can produce the erratic, often frightening behavior we see in crowds. -Some behavior that appears idiosyncratic or spontaneous to outsiders may, in fact, be normative for that particular group.

The work of Robert Zajonc

indicates that the mere presence of other people is physically arousing. - Many behavioral scientists assert that moderate amounts of physical anxiety enhance performance. - Many studies have found that moderate amounts of anxiety increase the drive or motivational component of the learning/performance equation, thus enhancing the performance of the best-learned response.

Friendship Group

those brought together because they share one or more common characteristics

Interest Group

those working together to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned

Task Group

those working together to complete a job task