Chapter 9 L4.2-L4.7

Drug trade

-Cocaine is traded by countries like Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia to consumers in developed regions like North America. The most common shipping route is through Mexico. -Most of the world's heroin is produced in Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Laos and is shipped to Western Europe or Russia. -Marijuana is produced widely around the world, though most marijuana in the US is grown in Mexico. Marijuana production is not thought to be expanding worldwide.

Reasons for high food prices

-Poor weathers in major crop-growing regions -Higher demand in countries like China and India -Smaller growth in productivity following decades of "miracle" breakthroughs -Use of crops as biofuels instead of food in regions like Latin America Food prices declined in 2015 due to increased supplies. High food prices have led to high land prices.

Water resources in CA

Because of several years of drought, California has been relying too heavily on groundwater. Water scarcity in California is important because California is one of the biggest agricultural regions in the US. The distribution of water (mainly in the north) does not match the demand for water (central and southern) in California

Global food trade in developing countries

Developing regions like Latin America (Brazil and Argentina) and Southeast Asia have had rapid increases in food exports. Farmers in these countries must trade consumers in developed countries food in exchange for farming technology. In some developing countries, families may split agricultural duties by gender, with women practicing subsistence agriculture and men working in commercial agriculture.

Undernourishment

Dietary energy consumption consistently lower than that needed for healthy life and carrying out light physical activity. It is estimated that 795 million people are undernourished, and most of these people are in South Asia, East Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. Undernourishment has declined worldwide in the past 20 years, both in numbers and percentage of the world's population.

Organic farming

Farming without the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The demand for organic foods has grown in developed regions. 43 million hectares, or 1% of farmland, worldwide is is organic. Countries with the largest share of organic farmland are Australia, Argentina, the US, and China.

Prices of food

Food prices doubled between 2006 and 2008, remained at record high levels through 2014, and declined in 2015.

Miracle seeds

Funded by the Rockefeller and Ford foundations, scientists created a miracle wheat seed in the 1950s and a miracle rice seed in the 1960s. These dwarf plants were more resistant to threats and produced a higher yield. More recently, scientists have developed a miracle maize seed. The diffusion of these miracle seeds around the world helped prevent a global food crisis

Global food trade

Global food trade has increased rapidly in the 21st century, increasing from $0.4 trillion in 2000 to $1.3 trillion in 2012. Exporting countries receive revenue, and importing countries receive food. Most trade of food is from the Western Hemisphere to the Eastern Hemisphere. Leading importers of food are Japan, the UK, China, and Russia. Leading exporters of food are countries in Latin America, North America, Southeast Asia, and the South Pacific.

GMO labeling

Most European countries, China, and India all require GMOs to be labeled. The US does not. Proponents of GMO labeling state that consumers deserve the right to know what is in their food while those against GMO labeling state that labeling would scare consumers and disrupt the US agricultural system.

Stages in the reduction of fallow farmland

1. Forest fallow: fields are cleared and used for up to 2 years and left fallow for more than 20 years, enough time for a forest to grow back. 2. Bush fallow: fields are cleared and used for up to 8 years and left fallow for up to 10 years, enough time for bushes and small trees to grow back. 3. Short fallow: fields are cleared and used for up to 2 years and left fallow for up to 2 years, enough time for wild grasses to grow back. 4. Annual cropping: fields are used every year and rotated between legumes and roots. 5. Multi-cropping: fields are used several times a year and never left fallow.

Famine in sub-Saharan Africa

1/4 of the population in sub-Saharan Africa is undernourished. This is the only world region that saw an increase in the number of undernourished people between 2000 and 2015. The threat of famine is most prominent in the Horn of Africa and the Sahel because rapid population growth led to the overuse of resources. Food supply has barely been able to keep up with population growth

No tillage

A farming practice in which all of the residue from the previous year's harvest is left on a field and the soil is left undisturbed

Genetically modified organism

A living organism possessing a combination of genetic material obtained through the use of biotechnology. A GMO mixes genetic material of two or more species that would not mix in nature. GMO seeds can be modified to survive herbicides and insecticides, called "Roundup-ready" seeds.

Ridge tillage

A system of planting crops on ridge tops

Intensification by subsistence farmers

According to economist Ester Boserup, with an increasing population, subsistence farmers must increase food supply by adopting new farming methods and leaving land fallow for shorter periods of time.

Pros and cons for GMOs in developing countries

Pros: higher yields, increased nutrition, more resistance to pests, and better taste Cons: health problems (resistance to antibiotics), export problems (resistance to the sale of GMOs in Europe), increased dependence on the US (dependent on GMO seeds from US companies).

Cleanliness of produce

When tested by the USDA in 2013, 2/3 of fruit and vegetable samples were found to contain pesticide residue. The Environmental Working Group published a list of the "dirty dozen" and "clean fifteen" fruits and vegetables based on these findings.

Government subsidies and the green revolution

In order to make use of miracle seeds, farmers must have tractors, irrigation systems, and other machines. Farmers in developing countries often cannot afford this technology. As a result, governments must provide subsidies to farmers in order to purchase seeds, fertilizers, and machinery

Organic farming of animals

In organic farming, animals consume crops grown on the farm and are not confined to small pens. There is very much debate over the morality of confining livestock, not to mention the pollution and health problems caused by this practice. In addition, animals farmed organically are only given antibiotics for therapeutic purposes. The EU has banned the use of antibiotics in livestock for purposes other than medical, but the US still allows the practice

GMOs in the US

In the United States, 94% of soybeans, 90% of cotton, and 88% maize are genetically modified. Comparatively, the world's numbers for these three categories are 77%, 49%, and 26%. 3/4 of processed foods in the US contain genetically modified ingredients, and the US and Latin America are responsible for most of the world's GMOs. The US currently does not sell any genetically modified animal products

US policies towards agriculture

The US government keeps food prices low in order to to make food affordable for urban residents. Thus, farmers may be unable to sell their food at a profit. To combat this, the US government encourages farmers to avoid producing crops in excess supply, pays farmers when certain prices are too low, and buys surplus production and sells/donates it to other countries. The US has averaged $20 billion a year on farm subsidies in recent years. Farming is even more subsidized in Europe than the US.

Green revolution

The invention and rapid diffusion of more productive agricultural techniques in the 1970s and 80s. Led by Norman Borlaug, the green revolution focused on introducing higher-yield seeds and expanding the use of fertilizers. Agricultural productivity has increased in both developing and developed regions

Fertilizers

The second part of the green revolution was the greater use of fertilizers. Nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium improve soil fertility, and fertilizers made of these elements seek to restore nutrients to soil. Europeans commonly use a fertilizer known as urea, made of 46% nitrogen, and North Americans use ammonia gas, which is 82% nitrogen. The production of nitrogen-based fertilizers often uses fossil fuels

Sustainability of agricultural practices

There is much debate over modern agricultural practices. The world's agricultural system must produce more food to feed more people than ever before, but this system includes practices that are harmful for the environment. In addition, there has been greater demand for organic and locally grown foods, but some say that the local and organic food movement is not capable of providing affordable food to the world's people

Water resources in the Midwest

Too might precipitation in the US Midwest can damage fields by eroding soil. The practice of tillage, or clearing away last year's crop residue and then churning up the soil before next year's seeds are planted, contributes to this erosion. Some farmers have begun practicing conservation tillage to reduce erosion.

Public Law 480/Agricultural, Trade Development, and Assistance Act of 1954

US law that allows the US to sell grain to other countries at low interest rates and give grants to needy groups. The US exports a large amount of grain