Chapter 9: The Progressive Era
Secret ballot
William S. U'Ren prompted his state of Oregon to adopt the secret ballot (also called the Australian ballot)
Scientific management/"Taylorism"
(Fostering Efficiency) Within an industry, Frederick Winslow Taylor began using time and motion studies to improve efficiency by breaking manufacturing tasks into simpler parts. "Taylorism" became a management fad, as industry reformers applied these scientific management studies to see just how quickly each task could be performed (invented time and motion studies).
Social Gospel and Settlement houses
(Protecting social welfare) Many social welfare reformers worked to soften some of the harsh conditions of industrialization. The Social Gospel and settlement house movements of the late 1800s, which aimed to help the poor through community centers, churches, and social services, continued during the Progressive Era and inspired, even more, reform activities.
Farm women
On farms in the South and the Midwest, women's roles had not changed substantially since the previous century. In addition to household tasks such as cooking, making clothes, and laundering, farm women handled a host of other chores such as raising livestock. Often the women had to help plow and plant the fields and harvest the crops.
Carri Chapman/tactics
Susan B. Anthony's successor as president of NAWSA was Carrie Chapman Catt, who served from 1900 to 1904 and resumed the presidency in 1915. When Catt returned to NAWSA after organizing NY's Women Suffrage Party, she concentrated on five tactics: (1) painstaking organization; (2) close ties between local, state, and national workers; (3) establishing a wide base of support; (4) cautious lobbying; and (5) gracious, and ladylike behavior.
Federal Trade
The second major antitrust measure, the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914, set up the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). This "watchdog" agency was given the power to investigate possible violations of regulatory statues, to require periodic reports from corporations, and to put an end to a number of unfair business practices. Under Wilson, the FTC administrated almost 400 cease-and-desist orders to companies engaged in illegal activity.
Newlands Act (National Reclamation Act) of 1902
Under the National Reclamation Act of 1902, known as the Newlands Act, money from the sale of public lands in the West funded large-scale irrigation projects, such as the Roosevelt Dam in Arizona and the Shoshone Dam in Wyoming. The Newlands Act established the precedent(example) that the federal government would manage the precious water resources of the West.
Florence Kelley
(Protecting social welfare) Many women were inspired by the settlement houses to take action. Florence Kelley became an advocate for improving the lives of women and children. She was appointed a chief inspector of factories for Illinois after she had helped to win passage of the Illinois Factory Act in 1893. The act, which prohibited child labor and limited women's working hours, soon became a model for other states.
Ida M. Tarbell
(Creating economic reform) In her "History of the Standard Oil Company," a monthly serial in McClure's Magazine, the writer Ida M. Tarbell described the company's cutthroat methods of eliminating competition. "Mr. Rockefeller has systemically played with loaded dice," Tarbell charged, "and it is doubtful if there has been a time since 1872 when he has run a race with a competitor and started fair."
WCTU
(Promoting moral improvement) Found in Cleveland in 1874, the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) spearheaded the movement for prohibition. Members advanced their cause by entering saloons, singing, praying, and urging saloonkeepers to stop selling alcohol.As momentum grew, the Union was transformed by Frances Willard from a small midwestern religious group in 1879 to a national organization. Boasting 245,000 members by 1911, the WCTU became the largest women's group in the nation's history. WCTU membered followed Willard's "do everything" slogan and began opening kindergartens for immigrants, visiting inmates(피수용자) in prisons and asylums(shelter), and working for suffrage. The WCTU reform activities, like those of the settlement movement, provided women with expanded public roles, which they used to justify giving women voting rights.
The Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) and the Salvation Army
(Protecting social welfare) YMCA opened libraries, sponsored classes, and built swimming pools and handball courts. The Salvation Army fed poor people in soup kitchens, cared for children in nurseries(보육원), and sent "slum brigades(small army)" to instruct poor immigrants in middle-class values of hard work and temperance.
Progressive movement
-Middle-class reformers addressed many of the problems that had contributed to the social upheavals of the 1890s. Journalists and writers exposed the unsafe conditions often faced by factory workers, including women and children. Intellectuals questioned the dominant role of large corporations in American society. Political reformers struggled to make government more responsive to the people. -Together, these reform efforts formed the progressive movement, which aimed to restore economic opportunities and correct injustices in American life. -at this era: populists(poor farmers, poor workers, mostly not educated), progressive reformers(cities, middle-class educated, journalists, theologists, teachers, professors, intellectuals, writers) -general aims: return gov't to the people, restore economic opportunity(free up competitions, which was corrupted by Trusts), correct justices(women suffrage) -progressive reform is mainly caused by laissez-faire(unregulated) industrialization(gov't started to regulate) -Progressive era was chaotic because of liberal impulse(dominant impulse): gov't wanted to change everything. -Almost all of Democrats were progressive and amlost 50% of Rep. were progressive
Local government reforms
-People wanted government to work for them and honest with them Natural disasters sometimes played an important role in prompting reform of city governments. -In 1900, a hurricane and tidal wave almost demolished Galveston, Texas. The politicians on the city council botched the huge relief and rebuilding job so badly that the Texas legislature appointed a five-member commission of experts to take over. Each expert took charge of a different city department, and soon Galveston was rebuilt. This success prompted the city to adopt the commission idea as a form of government, and by 1917, 500 cities had followed Galveston's example. -Another natural disaster--a flood in Dayton, Ohio, in 1913--led to the widespread adoption of the council-manager form of government. Staunton, Virginia, had already pioneered this system, in which people elected a city council to make laws. The council in turn appointed a manager, typically a person with training and experience in public administration, to run the city's departments. By 1925, managers were administering nearly 250 cities.
Regulating foods and drugs
After reading The Jungle by Upton Sinclair, Roosevelt responded to the public's clamor for action. He appointed a commission of experts to investigate the meatpacking industry. The commission issued a scathing report backing up Sinclair's account of the disgusting conditions in the industry. True to his word, in 1906 Roosevelt pushed for passage of the Meat Inspection Act, which dictated strict cleanliness requirements for meatpackers and created the program of federal meat inspection that was in use until it was replaced by more sophisticated techniques in the 1990s. The compromise that won the act's passage, however, left the government paying for the inspections and did not require companies to label their canned goods with date-of-processing information. The compromise also granted meatpackers the right to appeal negative decisions in court.
National Women's Party; Burns&Paul tactics
Although suffragists saw victories, the greater number of failures led some suffragists to try more radical tactics Lucy Burns and Alice Paul formed their own more radical organization, the Congressional Union, and its successor, the National Woman's Party. They pressured the federal gov't to pass a suffrage amendment, and by 1917 Paul had organized her followers to mount a round-the-clock picket line around the White House. Some of the picketers were arrested, jailed, and even force-fed when they attempted a hunger strike.
Republican Party splits
The split in the Republican ranks handed the Democrats their first real chance at the White House since the election of Grover Cleveland in 1892. In the 1912 presidential election, they put forward as their candidate a reform governor of NJ named Woodrow Wilson.
Gifford Pinchot/multi-use conservation
True to the Progressive belief in using experts, in 1905 the president named Gifford Pinchot as head of the US Forest Service. A professional conservationist, Pinchot had administrative skill as well as the latest scientific and technical information. He advised Roosevelt to conserve forest and grazing lands by keeping large tracts of federal land exempt from private sale. Conservationists like Roosevelt and Pinchot, however, did not share the views of Muir, who advocated complete preservation of the wilderness. Instead, conservation to them meant that some wilderness areas would be preserved while others would be developed for the common good. Indeed, Roosevelt's federal water projects transformed some dry wilderness areas to make agriculture possible. Under the National Reclamation Act of 1902, known as the Newlands Act, money from the sale of public lands in the West funded large-scale irrigation projects, such as the Roosevelt Dam in Arizona and the Shoshone Dam in Wyoming. The Newlands Act established the precedent(example) that the federal government would manage the precious water resources of the West.
Susan B. Anthony
After the Seneca Falls convention of 1848, women split over the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, which granted equal rights including the right to vote to African American men but excluded women. Susan B. Anthony, a leading proponent of woman suffrage, the right to vote, said: "I would sooner cut off my right hand than ask the ballot for the black man and not for women." In 1869 Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton had founded the National Women Suffrage Association (NWSA), which united with another group in 1890 to become the National American Woman Suffrage Association or NAWSA.
Single-Interest groups
An interest group is an organization whose members share common concerns and try to influence government policies affecting those concerns. Interest groups are also known as lobbies; lobbying is one of the ways in which interest groups shape legislation and bring the views of their constituents to the attention of decision-makers. Elected officials, as well as the public, are often critical of the roles of "special interests" in the political process. The activities of lobbyists can smack of vote-buying and influence-peddling. There are so many organized lobbies today, representing numerous segments of society and addressing such a wide range of issues, that the distinction between "special interests" and those of the American people may no longer be valid. -For example: Anti-Saloon League
New Freedom
As America's newly elected president, Wilson moved to enact his program, the "New Freedom," and planned his attack on what he called the triple wall of privilege: the trusts, tariffs, and high finance.
Women's voting rights
As of 1910, women had federal voting rights only in Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, Washington, and Idaho. Determined suffragists pushed on, however. They saw success come within reach as a result of three developments: the increased activism of local groups, the use of bold new strategies to build enthusiasm for the movement, and the rebirth of the national movement under Carrie Chapman Catt.
Meat Inspection Act
During the Progressive Era, people worried about the kinds of things that might fall--or walk--into a batch of meat being processed. Today, Americans worry more about contamination by unseen dangers, such as E. coli bacteria, mad cow disease, and antibiotics or other chemicals that may pose long-range health risks to people. In July 1996, Congress passed the most extensive charges in standards for meat inspection since the Meat Inspection Act of 1906. The costs of the new, more scientific inspections amount to about a tenth of a penny per pound of meat. The FDA has also adopted restrictions on importation(새로운 것) of feed and livestock from other countries to prevent the spread of disease.
17th Amendment/direct election of senators
It was the success of the direct primary that paved the way for the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution. Before 1913, each state's legislature had chosen its own US senators, which put even more power in the hands of party bosses and wealthy corporation heads. To force senators to be more responsive to the public, progressives pushed for the popular election of senators. At first, the Senate refused to go along with the idea, but gradually more and more states began allowing voters to nominate senatorial candidates in direct primaries. As a result, Congress approved the Seventeenth Amendment in 1912. Its ratification in 1913 made a direct election of senators the law of the land. (direct primary-candidates were chosen by a political machine(after prog. era, candidates were chosen by people, direct election of senators) Government reform--including efforts to give Americans more of a voice in electing their legislators and creating laws--drew increased numbers of women into public life. It also focused renewed attention on the issue of woman suffrage.
Domestic workers
Many women without formal education or industrial skills contributed to the economic survival of their families by doing domestic work, such as cleaning for other families. After almost 2 million African American women were freed from slavery, poverty quickly drove nearly half of them into the workforce. They worked on a farm and as domestic workers and migrated by the thousands to big cities for jobs as cooks, laundresses, scrubwomen, and maids. Altogether, roughly 70 percent of women employed in 1870 were servants. Unmarried immigrant women also did domestic labor, especially when they first arrived in the US. Many married immigrant women contributed to the family income by taking in piecework or caring for boarders at home.
William Monroe Trotter/Guardian
On November 12, 1914, the president's reception of an African-American delegation brought the confrontation to a bitter climax. William Monroe Trotter, editor-in-chief of the Guardian, an African-American Boston newspaper, led the delegation. Trotter complained that African Americans from 38 states had asked the president to reverse the segregation of government employees, but that segregation had since increased. Trotter then commented on Wilson's inaction. Wilson found Trotter's tone infuriating. After an angry Trotter shook his finger at the president to emphasize a point, the furious Wilson demanded that the delegation(대표 파견) leave. Wilson's refusal to extend civil rights to African Americans pointed to the limits of progressivism under his administration. America's involvement in the war raging in Europe would soon reveal other weakness.
John Muir/preservation
Roosevelt condemned the view that America's resources were endless and made conservation a primary concern. John Muir, a naturalist and writer with whom Roosevelt camped in California's Yosemite National Park in 1903, persuaded the president to set aside 148 million acres of forest reserves. Roosevelt also set aside 1.5 million acres of water-power sites and another 80 million acres of land that experts from the U.S. Geological Survey would explore for mineral and water resources. Roosevelt also established more than 50 wildlife sanctuaries and several national parks.
Initiative, referendum, recall
The initiative and referendum gave citizens the power to create laws. Citizens could petition to place an initiative--a bill originated by the people rather than lawmakers--on the ballot. Then voters, instead of the legislator, accepted or rejected the initiative by referendum, a vote on the initiative. The recall enabled voters to remove public officials from elected positions by forcing them to face another election before the end of their term if enough voters asked for it. By 1920, 20 states had adopted at least one of these procedures. (initiative-bill that is originated from people, referendum-votes on the initiative, recall-"lemon law" on politicians, direct primary-candidates were chosen by a political machine(after prog. era, candidates were chosen by people, direct election of senators)
19th Amendment and women's vote
These efforts, and American's involvement in WWI, finally made suffrage inevitable. Patriotic American women who headed committees, knitted socks for soldiers, and sold liberty bonds now claimed their overdue reward for supporting the war effort. In 1919, Congress passed 19th amendment, granting women the right to vote. The amendment won final ratification in August 1920--72 years after women had first convened and demanded the vote at the Seneca Falls convention in 1848.
Robert La Follette
Under the progressive Republican leadership of Robert M. La Follette, Wisconsin led the way in regulating big business. "Fighting Bob" La Follette served three terms as governor before he entered the U.S. Senate in 1906. He explained that, as governor, he did not mean to "smash corporations, but merely to drive them out of politics, and then to treat them exactly the same as other people are treated." La Follette's major target was the railroad industry. He taxed railroad property at the same rate as other business property, set up a commission to regulate rates, and forbade railroads to issue free passes to state officials. Other reform governors who attacked big business interest included Charles B. Aycock of North Carolina and James S. Hoggs of Texas. -federal level: TR, WW, Congress
Upton Sinclair/The Jungle
When muckraking journalist Upton Sinclair began research for a novel in 1904, his focus was the human condition in the stockyards of Chicago. Sinclair intended his novel to reveal "the breaking of human hearts by a system that exploits the labor of men and women for profits." What most shocked readers in Sinclair's book, The Jungle(1906), however, was the sickening conditions of the meatpacking industry. President Theodore Roosevelt, like many other readers was nauseated(make someone sick) by Sinclair's account. The president invited the author to visit him at the White House, where Roosevelt promised that "the specific evils you point out shall, if their existence be proved, and if I have the power, be eradicated." (see textbook for Jungle text)
Four goals
1. protecting social welfare 2. promoting moral improvement 3. creating economic reform 4. fostering efficiency
Critics of laissez-faire
(Creating economic reform) As moral reformers sought to change individual behavior, a severe economic pain in 1893 promoted some Americans to question the capitalist economic system. As a result, some Americans, especially workers, embraced socialism. Labor leader Eugene V. Debs, who helped organize the American Socialist Party in 1901, commented on the uneven balance among big business, government, and ordinary people under the free-market system of capitalism. Though most progressive distanced themselves from socialism, they saw the truth of many of Debs's criticism. Big business often received favorable treatment from government officials and politicians and could use its economic power to limit competition. anti-trust laws and Henry Goerge income single tax(gradual income tax)
Women in industry
As better-paying opportunities became available in towns, and especially cities, women had new options for finding jobs, even though men's labor unions excluded them from membership. At the turn of the century, one out of five American women held jobs; 25 percent of them worked in manufacturing. The garment trade claimed about half of all women industrial workers. They typically held the least skilled positions, however, and received only about half as much money as their male counterparts or less. Many of these women were single and were assumed to be supporting only themselves, while men were assumed to be supporting families. Women also began to fill new jobs in offices, stores, and classrooms. These jobs required a high school, and by 1890, women high school graduates outnumbered men. Moreover, new business schools were preparing bookkeepers and stenographers, as well as training female typists to operate the new machines.
Fostering Efficiency
Many progressive leaders put their faith in experts and scientific principles to make society and the workplace more efficient. In defending an Oregon law that limited women factory and laundry workers to a ten-hour day, lawyer Louis D. Brandeis paid little attention to the legal argument. Instead, he focused on data produced by social scientists documenting the high costs of long working hours for both the individual and society. This type of argument--the "Brandeis brief"--would become a model for later reform litigation(소송, 고소).
Payne-Aldrich Tariff
Taft had campaigned on a platform of lowering tariffs, a staple of the progressive agenda. When the House passed the Payne Bill, which lowered rates on imported manufactured goods, the Senate proposed an alternative Bill, the Aldrich Bill, which made fewer cuts and increased many rates. Amid cries of betrayal from the progressive wing of his party, Taft signed the Payne-Aldrich Tariff, a compromise that only moderated the high rates of the Aldrich Bill. This angered progressives who believed Taft had abandoned progressivism. The president made his difficulties worse by clumsily attempting to defend the tariff, calling it "the best tariff bill the Republican party ever passed."
Carrie Nation
(Promoting moral improvement) In the 1890s, Carry Nation worked for prohibition by walking into saloons, scolding the customers, and using her hatchet to destroy bottles of liquor.
Civil Rights (Booker T. Washington v. W.E.B. Dubois)
As a symbolic gesture, Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dinner at the White House. Washing--head of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, an all black training school--was then the African-American leader most respected by powerful whites. Washington faced opposition, however, from other African American, such as W.E.B. Du Bois, for his accommodation of segregationists and for blaming black poverty on blacks and urging them to accept discrimination. Persistent in his criticism of Washington's ideas, Du Bois renewed his demands for immediate social and economic equality for African Americans. In his 1903 book 'The Souls of Black Folk', Du Bois wrote of his opposition to Washington's position. Du Bois and other advocates of equality for African Americans were deeply upset by the apparent progressive indifference to racial injustice. In 1905 they held a civil rights conference in Niagara Falls, and in 1909 a number of African Americans joined with prominent white reformers in NY to found the NAACP--the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The NAACP, which had over 6,000 members by 1914, aimed for nothing less than full equality among the races. That goal, however, found little support in the Progressive Movement, which focused on the needs of middle-class whites. The two presidents who followed Roosevelt also did little to advance the goal of racial equality.
National Association of Colored Women
In 1896, African-American women founded the National Association of Colored Women, or NACW, by merging two earlier organizations. Josephine Ruffin identified the mission of the African-American women's club movement as "the moral education of the race with which we are identified." The NACW managed nurseries, reading rooms, and kindergartens.
Federal Reserve Act/System
Next, Wilson turned his attention to financial reform. The nation needed a way to strengthen the ways in which banks were run, as well as a way to quickly adjust the amount of money in circulation. Both credit availability and money supply had to keep pace with the economy. Wilson's solution was to establish a decentralized private banking system under federal control. The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 divided the nation into 12 districts and established a regional central bank in each district. These "banker's banks" then served the other banks within the district. The federal reserve banks could issue new paper currency in emergency situations, and member banks could use the new currency to make loans to their customers. Federal reserve banks could transfer funds to member banks in trouble, saving the banks from closing and protecting customers' savings. By 1923, roughly 70% of the nation's banking resources were part of the Federal Reserve System. One of Wilson's most enduring achievements, this system still serves as the basis of the nation's banking system.
Roosevelt and Civil Rights
Roosevelt's concern for the land and its inhabitants was not matched in the area of civil rights. Though Roosevelt's father had supported the North, his mother, Martha, may well have been the model for the Southern belle Scarlett O'Hara in Margaret Mitchell's famous novel, Gone with the Wind. In almost two terms as president, Roosevelt--like most other progressives--failed to support civil rights for African Americans. He did, however, support a few individual African Americans. Despite opposition from whites, Roosevelt appointed an African American as head of the Charleston, South Carolina, customhouse. In another instance, when some whites in Mississippi refused to accept the black postmistress he had appointed, he chose to close the station rather than give in. In 1906, however, Roosevelt angered many African Americans when he dismissed without question as entire regiment of African-American soldiers accused of conspiracy in protecting others charges with murder in Brownsville, Texas.
"Uncle" Joe Cannon, House Speaker
Taft's cautious nature made it impossible for him to hold together the two wings of the Republican Party: progressives who sought changes and conservatives who did not. The Republican Party began to fragment. Republican conservatives and progressives split over Taft's support of the political boss Joseph Cannon, House Speaker from Illinois. A rough-talking, tobacco-chewing politician, "Uncle Joe" often disregarded seniority in filling committee slots. As chairman of the House Rules Committee, which decides what bills Congress considers, Cannon often weakened or ignored progressive bills. Reform-minded Republicans decided that their only alternative was to strip Cannon of his power. With the help of Democrats, they succeeded in March 1910 with a resolution that called for the entire House to elect the Committee on Rules and excluded the Speaker from membership in the Committee. By the midterm elections of 1910, however, the Republican Party was in shambles, with the progressives on one side and the "old guard" on the other. Voters voiced concern over the rising cost of living, which they blamed on the Payne-Aldrich Tariff. They also believed Taft to be against conservation. When the Republicans lost the election, the Democrats gained control of the House of Representatives for the first time in 18 years.
Protecting workers
The Supreme Court sometimes took a more sympathetic view of the plight of workers. In the 1908 case of Muller v. Oregon, Louis D. Brandeis--assisted by Florence Kelley and Josephine Goldmark--persuasively argued that poor working women were much more economically insecure than large corporations. Asserting that women required the state's protection against powerful employers, Brandeis convinced the Court to uphold an Oregon law limiting women to a ten-hour workday. Other states responded by enacting or strengthening laws to reduce women's hours of work. A similar Brandeis brief in Bunting v. Oregon in 1917 persuaded the Court to uphold a ten-hour workday for men. Progressives also succeeded in winning workers' compensation to aid the families of workers who were hunt or killed on the job. Beginning with Maryland in 1902, one state after another passed legislation requiring employers to pay benefits in death cases.
Modern presidency
When Roosevelt was thrust into the presidency in 1901, he became the youngest president ever at 42 years old. Unlike previous presidents, Roosevelt soon dominated the news with his many exploits. While in office, Roosevelt enjoyed boxing, although one of his opponents blinded him in the left eye. On another day, he galloped 100 miles on horseback, merely to prove the feat possible. In politics, as in sports, Roosevelt acted boldly, using his personality and popularity to advance his programs. His leadership and publicity campaigns helped create the modern presidency, making him a model by which all future presidents would be measured. Citing federal responsibility for the national welfare, Roosevelt thought the government should assume control whenever states proved incapable of dealing with problems. He explained, "It is the duty of the president to act upon the theory that he is the steward of the people, and ... to assume that he has the legal right to do whatever the needs of the people demand unless the Constitution or the laws explicitly forbid him to do it." Roosevelt saw the presidency as a "bully pulpit," from which he could influence the news media and shape legislation. If big business victimized workers, then President Roosevelt would see to it that the common people received what he called a Square Deal. This term was used to describe the various progressive reforms sponsored by the Roosevelt administration.
Cult of domesticity
myth that women's place is home but only rich women could stay at home, afterward. -Before the Civil War, married middle-class women were generally expected to devote their time to the care of their homes and families. By the 19th century, however, only middle-class and upper-class women could afford to do so. Poor women usually had no choice but to work for wages outside the home.
Muckrakers
(Creating economic reform) Journalists and investigative reporters who wrote about the corrupt side of the business and public life in mass circulation magazines during the early 20th century became known as muckrakers. (The term refers to John Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress," in which a character is so busy using a rake to clean up the muck of this world that he does not raise his eyes to heaven.) -Ida Tarbell: expose on Rockefeller and Standard Oil -Upton Sinclair: the Jungle-led to laws about meat packing industry -Lewis Hine: used photography to spread the problem of child labor -Lincoln Steffens: exposed the issue of poor
William Howard Taft
After winning the election in 1904, Roosevelt pledged not to run for reelection in 1908. He handpicked his secretary of war, William Howard Taft, to run against William Jennings Bryan, who had been nominated by the Democrats for the third time. Under the slogan "Vote for Taft this time, You can vote for Bryan any time," Taft and the Republicans won an easy victory.
Taft stumbles(=trustbusting)
As president, Taft pursued a cautiously progressive agenda, seeking to consolidate rather than to expand Roosevelt's reforms. He received little credit for his accomplishments, however. His legal victories, such as busting 90 trusts in a four-year term, did not bolster his popularity. Indeed, the new president confessed in a letter to Roosevelt that he never felt like the president. "When I am addressed as 'Mr. President,'" Taft wrote, "I turn to see whether you are not at my elbow." The cautious Taft hesitated to use the presidential bully pulpit to arouse public opinion. Nor could he subdue troublesome members of his own party. Tariffs and conservation posed his first problems.
Prohibition
(Promoting moral improvement) Other reformers felt that morality, not the workplace, held the key to improving the lives of poor people. These reformers wanted immigrants and poor city dwellers to uplift themselves by improving their personal behavior. Prohibition, the banning of alcoholic beverages, was one such program. Prohibitionist groups feared that alcohol was undermining American morals. (huge rape rate caused by alcohol and domestic violence, especially men beat women) Found in Cleveland in 1874, the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) spearheaded the movement for prohibition. Members advanced their cause by entering saloons, singing, praying(forced to go to church), and urging saloonkeepers to stop selling alcohol.
End of Progressivism
After taking office in 1913, Wilson had said, "There's no chance of progress and reform in an administration in which war plays the principal part." Yet he found that the outbreak of WWI in Europe in 1914 demanded America's involvement. Meanwhile, distracted Americans and their legislators allowed reform efforts to stall. As the pacifist and reformer Jane Addams mournfully reflected, "The spirit of fighting burns away all those impulses...which foster the will to justice." An international conflict was destined to be part of Wilson's presidency. During the early years of his administration, Wilson had dealt with issues of imperialism that had roots in the late 19th century. However, WWI dominated most of his second term as president. The Progressive Era had come to an end.
Civil rights
Despite Wilson's economic political reforms, he disappointed Progressives who favored social reform. In particular, on racial matters, Wilson appeased conservative Southern Democratic voters but disappointed his Northern white and black supporters. He placed segregationists in charge of federal agencies, thereby expanding racial segregation in the federal government, the military, and Washington D.C. Like Roosevelt and Taft, Wilson retreated on civil rights once in office. During the presidential campaign of 1912, he won the support of the NAACP's black intellectuals and white liberals by promising to treat black equally and to speak out against lynching(execute illegally). As president, however, Wilson opposed the federal anti-lynching legislation, arguing that these crimes fell under state jurisdiction. In addition, the Capitol and the federal offices in Washington D.C., which had been desegregated during Reconstruction, resumed the practice of segregation shortly after Wilson's election. Wilson appointed to his cabinet fellow white Southerners who extended segregation. Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, for example, proposed at a cabinet meeting to do away with common drinking fountains and towels in his department. According to an entry in Daniel's diary, President Wilson agreed because he had "made no promises in particular to negroes, except to do them justice." Segregated facilities, in the president's mind, were just. African Americans and their liberal white supporters in the NAACP felt betrayed. Oswald Garrison Villard, a grandson of the abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison, wrote to Wilson in dismay, "The colored men who voted and worked for you in the belief that their status as American citizens was safe in your hands are deeply cast down." Wilson's response--that he had acted "in the interest of the negroes" and "with the approval of some of the most influential negroes I know"--only widened the rift between the president and some of his former supporters.
Firing of Pinchot; Richard Ballinger
Next, Taft angered conservationists by appointing as his secretary of the interior Richard A. Ballinger, a wealthy lawyer from Seattle. Ballinger, who disapproved of conservationist controls on western lands, removed 1 million acres of forest and mining lands from the reserved list and returned it to the public domain. When a Department of the Interior official was fired for protesting Ballinger's actions, the fired worker published a muckraking article against Ballinger in Collier's Weekly magazine. Pinchot added his voice. In congressional testimony he accused Ballinger of letting commercial interests exploit the natural resources that rightfully belonged to the public. President Taft sided with Ballinger and fired Pinchot from the US Forest Service.
16th Amendment/income tax
With lower tariff rates, the federal gov't had to replace the revenue that tariffs had previously supplied. Ratified in 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment legalized a federal income tax, which provided revenue by taxing individual earnings and corporate profits.Under this graduated tax, larger incomes were taxed at higher rates than smaller incomes. The tax began with a modest tax on family incomes over $4,000, and ranged from 1 percent to max 6% on incomes over $500,000. Initially, few congressmen realized the potential of the income tax, but by 1917, the gov't was receiving more money on the income tax than it had ever gained from tariffs. Today, income taxes on corportions and individuals represent the federal gov't's main source of revenue.
Clayton Anti-Trust Act/pro-labor
"Without the watchful...resolute interference of the gov't," Wilson said, "there can be no fair play between individuals and such powerful institutions as the trusts. Freedom today is something more than being let alone." During Wilson's administration, Congress enacted two key antitrust measures. The first, the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914, sought to strengthen the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. The Clayton Act prohibited corporations from acquiring the stock of another if doing so would create a monopoly; if a company violated the law, its officers could be prosecuted. The Clayton Act also specified that labor unions and farm organizations no only had a right to exist but also would no longer be subject to antitrust laws. Therefore, strikes, peaceful picketing, boycotts, and the collection of strike benefits became legal. In addition, injunctions against strikers were prohibited unless the strikers threatened damage that could not be remedied. Samual Gompers, president of the American Federation of Labor(AFL), saw great value to workers in the Clayton Act. He called it a Magna Carta for labor, referring to the English document, signed in 1215, in which English king recognized that he was bound by the law and that the law granted rights to his subjects.
Eugene V. Debs and socialists
(Creating economic reform) Labor leader Eugene V. Debs, who helped organize the American Socialist Party in 1901, commented on the uneven balance among big business, government, and ordinary people under the free-market system of capitalism. Though most progressive distanced themselves from socialism, they saw the truth of many of Debs's criticism. Big business often received favorable treatment from government officials and politicians and could use its economic power to limit competition.Rise of socialism and conservatory hated socialism.
Henry Ford
(Fostering Efficiency) However, not all workers could work at the same rate, and although the introduction of the assembly lines did speed up production, the system required people to work like machines. This caused a high worker turnover, often due to injuries suffered by fatigued workers. To keep automobile workers happy and to prevent strikes, Henry Ford reduced the workday to eight hours and paid workers five dollars a day. This incentive attraction thousands of workers, but they exhausted themselves. As one homemaker complained in a letter to Henry Ford in 1914, "That $5 is a blessing--a bigger one than you know but oh they earn it."
Frances Willard
(Promoting moral improvement) As momentum grew, the Union was transformed by Frances Willard from a small midwestern religious group in 1879 to a national organization. Boasting 245,000 members by 1911, the WCTU became the largest women's group in the nation's history. WCTU membered followed Willard's "do everything" slogan and began opening kindergartens for immigrants, visiting inmates(피수용자) in prisons and asylums(shelter), and working for suffrage. The WCTU reform activities, like those of the settlement movement, provided women with expanded public roles, which they used to justify giving women voting rights.
Anti-Saloon League
(Promoting moral improvement) Sometimes efforts at prohibition led to trouble with immigrant groups. Such was the case with the Anti-Saloon League, founded in 1895. As members sought to close saloons to cure society's problems, tension arose between them and many immigrants, whose customs often included the consumption of alcohol. (Italians considered drinking as noble experiement) Saloons filled a number of roles within the immigrant community such as cashing paychecks and serving meals. - gave chance to crime organization and mass crime -Quietly founded by progressive women in 1895, the Anti-Saloon League called itself "the Church in action against the saloon." Whereas early temperance efforts had asked individuals to change their ways, the Anti-Saloon League worked to pass laws to force people to change and to punish those who drink. The Anti-Saloon League endorsed politicians who opposed "Demon Run," no matter which party they belonged to or where they stood on other issues. It also organized statewide referendums to ban alcohol. Between 1900 and 1917, voters in early half of the states prohibited the sale, production, and use of alcohol. Individual towns, city wards, and rural areas also voted themselves "dry."
Bull Moose Party
After leaving office, Roosevelt headed to Africa to shoot big game. He returned in 1910 to a hero's welcome, and responded with a rousing speech proposing a "New Nationalism," under which the federal gov't would exert its power for "the welfare of the people." By 1912, Roosevelt had decided to run for a third term as president. The primary elections showed that Republicans wanted Roosevelt, but Taft had the advantage of being the incumbent--that is holder of the office. At the Republican convention in June 1912, Taft supporters maneuvered to replace Roosevelt delegates with Tafts delegates in a number of delegations. Republican progressives refused to vote and formed a new third party, the Progressive Party. They nominated Roosevelt for president. The Progressive Party became known as the Bull Moose Party, after Roosevelt's boast that he was "as strong as bull moose." The party's platform called for the direct election of senators and the adoption in all states of the initiative, referendum, and recall. It also advocated woman suffrage, workmen's compensation, an eight-hour workday, a minimum wage for women, a federal law against child labor, and a federal trade commission to regulate business. The split in the Republican ranks handed the Democrats their first real chance at the White House since the election of Grover Cleveland in 1892. In the 1912 presidential election, they put forward as their candidate a reform governor of NJ named Woodrow Wilson.
National American Women Suffrage Association
After the Seneca Falls convention of 1848, women split over the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, which granted equal rights including the right to vote to African American men but excluded women. Susan B. Anthony, a leading proponent of woman suffrage, the right to vote, said: "I would sooner cut off my right hand than ask the ballot for the black man and not for women." In 1869 Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton had founded the National Women Suffrage Association (NWSA), which united with another group in 1890 to become the National American Woman Suffrage Association or NAWSA. Other prominent leaders included Lucy Stone and Julia Ward Howe, the author of "The Battle Hymn of the Republic." Woman suffrage faced constant opposition. The liquor industry feared that women would vote in support of prohibition, while the textile industry worried that women would vote for restrictions on child labor. Many men simply feared the changing role of women in society.
Suffrage
After the Seneca Falls convention of 1848, women split over the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, which granted equal rights including the right to vote to African American men but excluded women. Susan B. Anthony, a leading proponent of woman suffrage, the right to vote, said: "I would sooner cut off my right hand than ask the ballot for the black man and not for women." In 1869 Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton had founded the National Women Suffrage Association (NWSA), which united with another group in 1890 to become the National American Woman Suffrage Association or NAWSA. Other prominent leaders included Lucy Stone and Julia Ward Howe, the author of "The Battle Hymn of the Republic." Woman suffrage faced constant opposition. The liquor industry feared that women would vote in support of prohibition, while the textile industry worried that women would vote for restrictions on child labor. Many men simply feared the changing role of women in society.
Sherman Anti-trust Act
Although Congress had passed the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890, the act's vague language made enforcement difficult. As a result, nearly all the suits filed against the trusts under the Sherman Act were ineffective. President Roosevelt did not believe that all trusts were harmful, but he sought to curb the actions of those that hurt the public interest. The president concentrated his efforts on filing suits under the Sherman Antitrust Act. In 1902, Roosevelt made newspaper headlines as a trustbuster when he ordered the Justice Department to sue the Northern Securities Company, which had established a monopoly over northwestern railroads. In 1904, the Supreme Court dissolved the company. Although the Roosevelt administration filed 44 antitrust suits, winning a number of them and breaking up some of the trusts, it was unable to slow the merger movement in business.
Protecting working children
As the number of child workers rose dramatically, reformers worked to protect workers and to end child labor. Businesses hired children because they performed unskilled jobs for lower wages and because children's small hands made them more adapt at handling small parts and tools. Immigrants and rural migrants often sent their children to work because they viewed their children as part of the family economy. Often wages were so low for adults that every family member needed to work to pull the family out of poverty. In industrial settings, however, children were more prone to accidents caused by fatigue. Many developed serious health problems and suffered from stunted(발달이 저해된) growth. Formed in 1904, the National Child Labor Committee sent investigators to gather evidence of children working in harsh conditions. They then organized exhibitions with photographs and statistics to dramatize the children's plight. They were joined by labor union members who argued that child labor lowered wages for all workers. These groups pressured national politicians to pass the Keating-Owen Act in 1916. The act prohibited the transportation across state lines of goods produced with child labor. Two years later the Supreme court declared the act unconstitutional due to interference with states' rights to regulate labor. Reformers did, however, succeed in nearly every state by effecting legislation that banned child labor and set maximum hours.
Pure food and drug act
Before any federal regulations were established for advertising food and drugs, manufacturers had claimed that their products accomplished everything from curing cancer to growing hair. In addition, popular children's medicines often contained opium, cocaine, or alcohol. In a series of lectures across the country, Dr. Harvey Washington Wiley, chief chemist at the Department of Agriculture, criticized manufacturers for adding harmful preservatives to food and brought needed attention to this issue. In 1906, Congress passed the Pure Food and Drug Act, which halted the sale of contaminated foods and medicines and called for truth in labeling. Although this act did not ban harmful products outright, its requirement if truthful labels reflected the progressive belief that given accurate information, people would act wisely.
Trustbusting/good v. bad trusts
By 1900, trusts--legal bodies created to hold stock in many companies--controlled about four-fifths of the industries in the US.Some trusts, like Standard Oil, had earned poor reputations with the public by the use of unfair business practices. Many trusts lowered their prices to drive competitors out of the market and then took advantage of the lack of competition to jack prices up even higher. Although Congress had passed the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890, the act's vague language made enforcement difficult. As a result, nearly all the suits filed against the trusts under the Sherman Act were ineffective. President Roosevelt did not believe that all trusts were harmful, but he sought to curb the actions of those that hurt the public interest. The president concentrated his efforts on filing suits under the Sherman Antitrust Act. In 1902, Roosevelt made newspaper headlines as a trustbuster when he ordered the Justice Department to sue the Northern Securities Company, which had established a monopoly over northwestern railroads. In 1904, the Supreme Court dissolved the company. Although the Roosevelt administration filed 44 antitrust suits, winning a number of them and breaking up some of the trusts, it was unable to slow the merger movement in business.
Underwood Tariff
In an effort to curb the power of big business, Wilson worked to lower tariff rates, knowing that supporters of big business hadn't allowed such a reduction under Taft. Wilson lobbied hard in 1913 for the Underwood Act , which would substantially reduce tariff rates for the first time since the Civil War. He summoned Congress to a special session to plead his case, and established a precedent of delivering the State of the Union message in person. Business lobbied, too, looking to block tariff reductions. When manufacturing lobbyists--people hired by manufacturers to present their case to government officials--descended on the captial to urge senators to vote no, passage seemed unlikely. Wilson denounced the lobbyists and urged voters to monitor their senators' votes. Because of the new president's use of the bully pulpit, the Senate voted to cut tariff rates even more deeply than the House had done.
Election reform
In some cases, ordinary citizens won state reforms. William S. U'Ren prompted his state of Oregon to adopt the secret ballot (also called the Australian ballot), the initiative, the referendum, and the recall. The initiative and referendum gave citizens the power to create laws. Citizens could petition to place an initiative--a bill originated by the people rather than lawmakers--on the ballot. Then voters, instead of the legislator, accepted or rejected the initiative by referendum, a vote on the initiative. The recall enabled voters to remove public officials from elected positions by forcing them to face another election before the end of their term if enough voters asked for it. By 1920, 20 states had adopted at least one of these procedures. (initiative-bill that is originated from people, referendum-votes on the initiative, recall-"lemon law" on politicians, direct primary-candidates were chosen by a political machine(after prog. era, candidates were chosen by people, direct election of senators) In 1899, Minnesota passed the first mandatory statewide primary system. This enabled voters, instead of political machines, to choose candidates for public office through a special popular election. After two-thirds of the states had adopted some form of the direct primary by 1915.
Reform mayors
In some cities, mayors such as Hazen Pingree of Detroit, Michigan (1890-1897), and Tom Johnson of Cleveland, Ohio (1901-1909), introduced progressive reforms without changing how the government was organized. -Concentrating on economics, Pingree instituted a fairer tax structure, lowered fares for public transportation, rooted out corruption, and set up a system of work relief for the unemployed. Detroit city workers built schools, parks, and a municipal lighting plant. -Johnson was only one of 19 socialist mayors who worked to institute progressive reforms in America's cities. In general, these mayors focused on dismissing corrupt and greedy private owners of utilities--such as gas works, waterworks, and transit lines--and converting the utilities to publicly owned enterprises. Johnson believed that citizens should play a more active role in city gov't. He held meetings in a large circus tent and invited them to question officials about how the city was managed.
Woodrow Wilson
Like Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson claimed progressive ideals, but he had a different idea for the federal gov't. He believed in attacking large concentrations of power to give greater freedom to average citizens. The prejudices of his Southern background, however, prevented him from using federal power to fight off attacks directed at the civil rights of African Americans Wilson spent his youth in the South during the Civil War and Reconstruction. The son, grandson, and nephew of Presbyterian ministers, he received a strict upbringing. Before entering politics, Wilson worked as a lawyer, a history professor, and later as president of Princeton Univ. In 1910, Wilson became the governor of NJ. As governor, he supported progressive legislation programs such as a direct primary, worker's compensation, and the regulation of public utilities and railroads.
Bully pulpit
Roosevelt saw the presidency as a "bully pulpit," from which he could influence the news media and shape legislation. If big business victimized workers, then President Roosevelt would see to it that the common people received what he called a Square Deal. This term was used to describe the various progressive reforms sponsored by the Roosevelt administration.
Square Deal
Roosevelt saw the presidency as a "bully pulpit," from which he could influence the news media and shape legislation. If big business victimized workers, then President Roosevelt would see to it that the common people received what he called a Square Deal. This term was used to describe the various progressive reforms sponsored by the Roosevelt administration.
Railroad regulation/Hepburn and Elkin Acts
Roosevelt's real goal was federal regulation. In 1877, Congress had passed the Interstate Commerce Act, which prohibited wealthy railroad owners from colluding to fix high prices by dividing the business in a given area. The Interstate Commerce Commission(ICC) was set up to enforce the new law but had little power. With Roosevelt's urging, Congress passed the Elkins Act in 1903, which made it illegal for railroad officials to give, and shippers to receive, rebates for using particular railroads. The act also specified that railroads could not change set rates without notifying the public. The Hepburn Act of 1906 strictly limited the distribution of free railroad passes, a common form of bribery. It also gave the ICC power to set maximum railroad rates. Although Roosevelt had to compromise with conservative senators who opposed the act, its passage boosted the government's power to regulate the railroads.
Three-part strategy for suffrage
Suffragist leaders tried three approaches to achieve their objective. First, they tried to convince state legislatures to grant women the right to vote. They achieved a victory in the territory of Wyoming in 1869, and by the 1890s Utah, Colorado, and Idaho had also granted voting rights to women. After 1896, efforts in other states failed. Second, women pursued court cases to test the Fourteenth Amendment, which declared that states denying their male citizens the right to vote would lose congressional representation. Weren't women citizens, too? In 1871 and 1872, Susan B. Anthony and other women tested that question by attempting to vote at least 150 times in ten states and the District of Columbia. The Supreme Court ruled in 1875 that women were indeed citizens--but then denied that citizenship automatically conferred the right to vote. Third, women pushed for a national constitutional amendment to grant women for a vote. Stanton succeeded in having the amendment introduced in California, but it was killed later. For the next 41 years, women lobbied to have it reintroduced, only to see it continually voted down. Before the turn of the century, the campaign for suffrage achieved only modest success. Later, however, women's reform efforts paid off in improvements in the treatment of workers and in safer food and drug products--all of which President Theodore Roosevelt supported, along with his own plans for reforming business, labor, and the environment.
Local suffrage battles
The suffrage movement was given new strength by growing numbers of college-educated women. Two MA organizations, the Boston Equal Suffrage Association for Good Gov't and the College Equal Suffrage League, used door-to-door campaigns to reach potential supports. Founded by Radcliffe graduate Maud Wood Park, the Boston group spread the message of suffrage to poor and working-class women. Members also took trolley tours where, at each stop, crowds would gather to watch the unusual sight of woman speaking in public. Many wealthy young women who visited Europe as part of their education became involved in the suffrage movement in Britain. Led by Emmeline Pankhurst, British suffragists used increasingly bold tactics, such as heckling gov't officials, to advance their cause. Inspired by their activism, American women returned to the US armed with similar approaches in their own campaigns for suffrage.
Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt was not supposed to be president. In 1900, the young governor from NY was urged to run as McKinley's vice-president by the state's political bosses, who found Roosevelt impossible to control. The plot to nominate Roosevelt worked, taking him out of state office. However, as vice-president, Roosevelt stood a heartbeat away from becoming president. Indeed, President McKinley had served barely six months of his second term before he was assassinated, making Roosevelt the most powerful person in the government. Theodore Roosevelt was born into a wealthy NY family in 1858. An asthma sufferer during his childhood, young Teddy drove himself to accomplish demanding physical feats. As a teenager, he mastered marksmanship and horseback riding. At Harvard College, Roosevelt boxed and wrestled. At an early age, the ambitious Roosevelt became a leader in NY politics. After serving three terms in the NY State Assembly, he became NYC's police commissioner and then assistant secretary of the U.S. Navy. The aspiring politician grabbed national attention, advocating war against Spain in 1898. His volunteer cavalry brigade, the Rough Riders, won public acclaim for its role in the battle at San Juan Hill in Cuba. Roosevelt returned a hero and was soon elected governor of NY and then later won the vice-presidency. He hated Robber Barrons, spent most of his time alone, reading, favorite(=history, gov't, politics), wrote 30 books, and was naturalist, his mother and wife died at the same house on the same day(nervous breakdown): left to Dakota nature heated him determined we should protect nature, set "modern presidency": presidents speak out, white out(=Bully pulpit, stand up in front of press/speech), president(1901-1908, Wilson NJ governor)
1912 Presidential election
Under Governor Woodrow Wilson's leadership, the previously conservative NJ legislature had passed a host of reform measures. Now, as the Democratic presidential nominee, Wilson endorsed a progressive platform called the New Freedom. It demanded even stronger antitrust legislation, banking reform, and reduced tariffs. The split between Taft and Roosevelt, former Republican allies, turned nasty during the fall campaign. Taft labeled Roosevelt a "dangerous egotist," while Roosevelt branded Taft a "fathead" with the brain of a "guinea pig." Wilson distanced himself, quietly gloating, "Don't interfere when your enemy is destroying himself." The election offered voters several choices: Wilson's New Freedom, Taft's conservatism, Roosevelt's progressivism, or the Socialist Party policies of Eugene V. Debs. Both Roosevelt and Wilson supported a stronger government role in economic affairs but differed over strategies. Roosevelt supported government action to supervise big business but did not oppose all business monopolies, while Debs called for an end to capitalism. Wilson supported small business and free-market competition and characterized all business monopolies as evil. In a speech, Wilson explained why he felt that all business monopolies were a threat. Although Wilson captured only 42% of the popular vote, he won an overwhelming electoral victory and a Democratic majority in Congress. As a third-party candidate, Roosevelt defeated Taft in both popular and electoral votes. But reform claimed the real victory, with more than 75 percent of the vote going to the reform candidates--Wilson, Roosevelt, and Debs. In victory, Wilson could claim a mandate to break trusts and to expand the gov't's role in a social reform.
Women and reform
Uneducated laborers started efforts to reform workplace health and safety. The participation of educated women often strengthed existing reform groups and provided leadership for new ones. Because women were allowed to vote or run for office, women reformers made an effort to improve conditions at work and home. Their "social housekeeping" targeted workplace reform, housing reform, educational improvement, and food and drug laws. In 1896, African-American women founded the National Association of Colored Women, or NACW, by merging two earlier organizations. Josephine Ruffin identified the mission of the African-American women's club movement as "the moral education of the race with which we are identified." The NACW managed nurseries, reading rooms, and kindergartens. After the Seneca Falls convention of 1848, women split over the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, which granted equal rights including the right to vote to African American men but excluded women. Susan B. Anthony, a leading proponent of woman suffrage, the right to vote, said: "I would sooner cut off my right hand than ask the ballot for the black man and not for women." In 1869 Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton had founded the National Women Suffrage Association (NWSA), which united with another group in 1890 to become the National American Woman Suffrage Association or NAWSA. Other prominent leaders included Lucy Stone and Julia Ward Howe, the author of "The Battle Hymn of the Republic." Woman suffrage faced constant opposition. The liquor industry feared that women would vote in support of prohibition, while the textile industry worried that women would vote for restrictions on child labor. Many men simply feared the changing role of women in society.
1902 Coal Strike/federal arbitration
When 140,000 coal miners in Pennsylvania went on strike and demanded a 20 percent raise, a nine-hour workday, and the right to organize a union, the mine operators refused to bargain. Five months into the strike, coal reserves ran low. Roosevelt, seeing the need to intervene, called both sides to the White House to talk, and eventually settled the strike. Irked by the "extraordinary stupidity and bad temper" of the mine operators, he later confessed that only the dignity of the presidency had kept him from taking one owner "by the seat of the breeches" and tossing him out of the window. Faced with Roosevelt's threat to take over the mines, the opposing sides finally agreed to submit their differences to an arbitration commission--a third party that would work with both sides to mediate the dispute. In 1903, the commission issued its compromise settlement. The miners won a 10 percent pay hike and a shorter, nine-hour workday. With this, however, they had to give up their demand for a closed shop--in which all workers must belong to the union--and their right to strike during the next three years. President Roosevelt's actions had demonstrated a new principle. From then on, when a strike threatened the public welfare, the federal government was expected to intervene. In addition, Roosevelt's actions reflected the progressive belief that disputes could be settled in an orderly way with the help of experts, such as those on the arbitration commission.
Women in higher education
Women also began to fill new jobs in offices, stores, and classrooms. These jobs required a high school, and by 1890, women high school graduates outnumbered men. Moreover, new business schools were preparing bookkeepers and stenographers, as well as training female typists to operate the new machines. Many of the women who became active in public life in the late 19th century had attended the new women's colleges. Vassar College--with a faculty of 8 men and 22 women--accepted its first students in 1865. Smith and Wellesley Colleges followed in 1875. Though Columbia, Brown, and Harvard Colleges refused to admit women, each university established a separate college for women. (seven sisters-Ivy league for women: wellesley, Smith, Barnard(Columbia), Radclife(Harvard), Penbrold(Brown), Mt. Holyoke, Brun Maur) Middle-class women started to get an office job, retail, working in a hospital("white collar"). Although women were still expected to fulfill traditional domestic roles, women's colleges sought to grant women an excellent education. In her will, Smith College's founder, Sophia Smith, made her goals clear. By the late 19th century, marriage was no longer a woman's only alternative. Many women entered the workforce or seek higher education. In fact, almost half of college-educated women in the late 19th century never married, retaining their own independence. Many of these educated women began to apply their skills needed social reforms.