Chapters 1-2, 4-5

Pataasin ang iyong marka sa homework at exams ngayon gamit ang Quizwiz!

Explain how maximum reaction velocity is determined.

# of enzymes and how effective they are at turning the substrate into the product (Expressed as Kcat turnover number)

four types of receptors

(1) ligand-gated channels, (2) G protein-coupled receptors, (3) enzyme/enzyme-linked receptors, and (4) intracellular receptors

Basement membrane

(basal lamina) - thin, permeable, noncellular, nonliving sheet of matrix

Apical surface

(mucosal surface) - facing the cavity or open space

Basal surface

(serosal surface) - toward the underlying tissue

Molarity vs. Molality

-When water is the solvent, dilute solutions have similar molarity and molality. -Molality does not vary with temperature (mass does not change) -Molarity varies with temperature (volume changes)

Limitations of microarrays

-doesn't reveal defects that prevent protein translation later -cannot cure anything -cannot identify every gene behaving inappropriately

phospholipid bilayer

A double layer of phospholipids that makes up plasma and organelle membranes.

Michaelis-Menten Kinetics

A kinetic pattern in which the initial rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction exhibits a hyperbolic dependence on substrate concentration.

what is the importance of membrane fluidity?

Allows diffusion in the plane of membranes Allows redistribution of proteins after synthesis Allows for redistribution following cell division

ligand-gated channel

An ion channel that is stimulated to open by the binding of a small molecule such as a neurotransmitter. acts as both a receptor and a gated channel.

Which cue is responsible for producing the two phenotypes in the western white butterfly?

Both temperature and day length

describe oxygen storage ability in hooded seals (aged 6 months to adult).

By the time they have reached adulthood, the amount of O2 that can be stored per gram of tissue has tripled.

DNA methylation

CH3 attaches to cytosine (most commonly on a promotor)

example of mechanism and adaptive significance being exclusive

Cephalopods and fish have similar retinas built on different structures; cephalopods have multiple optic nerves, fish have one

which ion is electrochemically neutral

Cl-

Which subdiscipline of physiology covers the synthetic study of the function of all animals?

Comparative physiology

physiological mechanism

Components of actual living animals and the interactions among them that enable them to perform as they do (I.e. light production by fireflies is due to microscopic gas-filled tubules)

Define mechanism and relate to physiology.

Components of actual living animals and the interactions among them that enable them to perform as they do (ie fireflies)

2 major mechanisms of epigenetic marking

DNA methylation & covalent modification of histones

The major mechanism(s) of epigenetic marking is(are)

DNA methylation and covalent modification of histones.

Electrolytes present additional complexities for predicting colligative properties - WHY?

Electrolytes break into additional particles

active transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference

Studying the effects of high altitude on human hiking ability would fall under which subdiscipline?

Environmental physiology

How does the environment affect growth in children?

Environmental stresses tend to impair growth.

Compare and contrast an enzyme versus a catalyst

Enzyme is the organic catalyst; Enzymes are proteins that increase rate of chemical reactions converting substrate into product. Catalysts are substances that increase or decrease the rate of a chemical reaction but remain unchanged.

Enzymatic changes measured in a population typically occur on what time frame?

Evolutionary

Explain all of the factors that can affect enzyme conformation.

Factors such as pH, temperature, effectors, and inhibitors

True or False: All epithelial cells have microvilli.

False

microvilli

Fingerlike extensions of plasma membrane of apical epithelial cells, increase surface area and aid in absorbtion (exist on every moist epithelia, but most dense in small intestine and kidney)

example of developmental physiology

From weanling to adult, O2 stores in hooded seals double with the largest change seen in muscle myoglobin.

Which receptor protein brings about cascades of membrane proteins involving significant amplification?

G protein-coupled receptor

Which receptor proteins activate enzymes on the cell membrane?

G protein-coupled receptor and enzyme/enzyme-linked receptor

When epinephrine attaches to a(n) _______, the process of _______ results in the formation of a large amount of intracellular _______.

G protein-coupled receptor; amplification; glucose

Which cell-cell junctions allow cytoplasmic flow between the connected cells?

Gap junction correct

Within the mitochondria, _______ crosses the inner mitochondrial membrane to turn _______ and ultimately produce _______.

H+; the rotor of ATP synthase; ATP

difference between bioluminescence and florescence

In fluorescence, light is not produced de novo; instead, preexisting light is absorbed and re-emitted at longer wavelengths.

Which receptor protein interacts with DNA?

Intracellular receptor

In simple solute equation as follows: J = D [(C1-C2)/X] what is J and what is it proportional to?

J is the net # of solute molecules passing into the low concentration region per second through each unit of cross sectional area. It is directly proportional to the difference in concentration (C1-C2). (the rate of diffusion increases as the distance between between the concentration decreases (X is inversely proportional to J).)

limitations of simple diffusion

Large polar molecules cannot diffuse across Non-polar and small molecules can

Which receptor protein changes membrane voltage immediately when activated?

Ligand-gated channel

What is the developmental relationship between marine periwinkle snails and crabs?

Marine periwinkles develop thicker shells in waters with crabs present. correct

Which statement regarding white-footed mouse development is true?

Metabolic rate increases dramatically during the nestling period

What is the process by which cells and organisms acquire, rearrange, and void commodities in ways that sustain life?

Metabolism

Diffusion

Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

cone snail muscle contraction

NT acetylcholine released by nerve cell binds noncovalently to the receptor sites of acetylch receptors (ligand-gated channels) on surface of muscle cell. Channels then open, allow Na+ and K+ ions flowing through cell membrane of the muscle, changing voltage across membrane and the muscle contracts. Venom toxins made by fish-eating cone snails attack these ligand-gated channel receptors , & as other cone snail toxins attack voltage-gated Na+ channels.

Which source contributes to the oxygen stores of the hooded seal?

O2 in the lungs and O2 attached to blood hemoglobin and muscle myoglobin

Which is the most accurate description of the mechanism of the light-emitting reaction in the firefly?

Oxygen reacts with luciferyl-AMP to produce light

Which of the following is not involved at the cell membrane in a second-messenger cascade?

Phospholipase C

______ is a phenomenon in which genetically identical individuals can assume two or more distinct body forms, induced by differences in the environment.

Polyphenic development

Which of the following is not a functional type of membrane protein?

Resistance

Migratory locusts can either take on the solitary or gregarious phenotype (both morphology and behavior) What external and internal signals are involved ?

Solitarys are colored in inconspicuous ways, they are difficult to find. When they come into continuous contact, they transform within a few hours to gregarious and associate avidly with others. That transformation is the starting point for swarm formation. Serotonin and Dopamine are involved.

What does research on squid have to do with human physiology?

Squid nerve cells are large, easily studied, and function like human nerve cells

enzyme-product complex

Substrate is converted to product while united with the enzyme

phenotypic plasticity

The ability of a single animal (with a fixed genotype) to express two or more genetically controlled phenotypes. Needs to be able to change.

Noncovalent and covalent modulation

The channel and transporter proteins in a membrane are often subject to modulation (allosteric/noncovelent and covalent) - allow for rapid adjustment of function

Which statement regarding brain phospholipids in fish is most accurate?

The colder the habitat, the greater the degree of phospholipid unsaturation in the brain synaptic membranes.

electrical gradient (membrane potential)

The inner surface of the membrane is more negatively charged and the outer surface is more positively charged

enzyme-catalyzed reactions

The reaction is faster with an enzyme present than without the enzyme present (hyperbolic or sigmoid kinetics)

Which of the following is an example of a possible physiological effect a river dam could impose on migrating Pacific salmon?

The salmon may get past the dam, but their efforts cost them too much energy.

How does the cell keep potassium in and sodium out?

The sodium-potassium pump system moves sodium and potassium ions against large concentration gradients. It moves two potassium ions into the cell where potassium levels are high, and pumps three sodium ions out of the cell and into the extracellular fluid.

Michaelis constant (Km)

The substrate concentration at which an enzyme-catalyzed reaction proceeds at one-half its maximum velocity.

phospholipid saturated vs unsaturated

The terms saturated and unsaturated refer to whether or not double bonds are present between the carbons in the fatty acid tails.

What is the proposed advantage to locusts adopting the gregarious phenotype?

The voracious behavior of swarms enables locusts in a swarm to collect large quantities of food.

Which statement regarding fish eyes and octopus eyes is most accurate?

They are similar in gross appearance, functional performance, and adaptive significance but differ in their mechanisms

What happens when phospholipid molecules are placed in an aqueous solution?

They form a bilayer with hydrophobic ends facing inward.

True or False: Enzymes are involved in circadian rhythms.

True

True or False: Human LDH-A (lactate dehydrogenase) and Killifish LDH-C both catalyze the same chemical reaction.

True

True or False: Metabolism includes both anabolism and catabolism.

True

True or False: Salmon have a limited supply of energy for the migration to their spawning grounds.

True

True or False; Some populations of sandpipers can fly over 5000 km at a time without eating.

True

Fick equation

VO2 = Q x A-VO2 diff

Adaptive Significance

WHY natural selection valued evolution of the trait

Relate epigenetics to phenotypic plasticity

When epigenetic responses are inherited, whether spontaneous or environmentally induced, the result is selectable phenotypic variation and adaptive evolution. Alternatively, when epigenetic changes are not inherited, the result is phenotypic plasticity.

Examples of epigenetic control of polyphonic development

Worker and queen honeybees - same genotype, but if DNA methylation blocked, a worker becomes queen; DNA methylation relates head size and foraging behavior in carpenter ants

For many fish species, 99% of individuals die before they complete larval development. Why is this ?

Young fish do not have gills but they do have chloride cells.

When studying acute cardiac function, what is of prime physiological importance? a. Oxygenation of all parts of the heart muscle correct b. Heart morphology incorrect c. How diet affects the heart incorrect d. How exercise affects the heart incorrect

a

Which statement regarding fish gills best approximates the description of a mechanism? a. Freshwater fish use ATP to pump ions inward across the gill membrane. b. Fish with more gill surface area have an advantage in hypoxic water. c. Gills evolved as an organ to extract oxygen from the water. d. The larger the fish, the larger the gill surface area must be to support its metabolism.

a

evolution

a change of gene frequencies over time in a population of organisms.

Desmosome

a junction at which mutually adhering glycoprotein filaments from two adjacent cells intermingle across the space between cells.

Which of the following represents a biochemical aspect of predator/prey interactions? a. The production of ATP b .The contractile properties of the muscle cells c. The percentage chance that the predator is successful in a hunting run d. The ratio of predators to prey items

a.

The surprise of a phone call at 3:00 am results in an increase in heart rate. This is an example of a(n)

acute change

Evolutionary changes

alteration of gene frequencies over the course of many generations after exposure

The physiology of very young animals _______ differs from that of adults.

always correct

Multiple-enzyme sequences in which each enzyme in the sequence activates another enzyme is an example of

amplification

Nonadaptive evolution

an allele with lower probability of survival/reproduction becomes predominant from chance (chance = genetic drift)

Photocytes

animal cells in which produce bioluminescence (fireflies, fish, invertebrates)

Food that has just entered the small intestine is in contact with the _______ of the intestinal epithelial cells.

apical surface

colligative properties of an aqueous solution

are the properties that depend simply on the number of dissolved entities per unit volume rather than the nature of the entities.

Structural Protein

attaches to other molecules (e.g.proteins) to anchor intracellular elements (e.g., cytoskeleton filaments) to cell membrane, creates junctions between cells, or establishes other structural relations.

Choose the best description of a chronic physiological response. a. Being frightened by a sudden loud noise b. Having improved heart health from exercise c. Digesting a meal d. Being heterozygous for sickle cell anemia

b

how is active transport implicated in freshwater fish?

because of osmotic pressures in their blood that exceed osmotic pressure of freshwater, they gain water by osmosis, especially across gills. They use active transport to take in salt, then excrete urine.

Receptor protein

binds noncovalently with specific molecules and initiates change in membrane permeability/cell metabolism.

Transporter protein

binds noncovalently with specific molecules/ions to move them across a membrane intact.

The best way to study the energetic requirements of long-distance bird migrations is a. to study what they eat. b. to fly them in a wind tunnel. c. to use a combination of wind tunnel measurements and field observations. d. to use sensors attached to the birds during the entire migration.

c

which research topic best studies physiology? a. Food choices of salmon b. How population reduction in salmon affects related species c. Intestinal modifications that allow increased food processing d. Difference in fish muscle shapes according to closely related species

c

Which situation has been shown to demonstrate epigenetic marking? a. Birds learning the North Star. incorrect b. Marine molluscs forming thicker shells in the presence of predators. incorrect c. Honeybees fed royal jelly to produce a queen. d. Children not reaching their full potential height due to lack of nutrients. incorrect

c.

covalent modifications of histones

can be by methylation, acetylation, phosphorylation

The reaction of isocitrate (a 6-carbon molecule) to α-ketoglutarate (a 5-carbon molecule) is an excellent example of

catabolism

receptors

certain protein molecules of the cell with which neutrotransmitters or hormones bind

Developmental changes

changes in individual physiology occurring in programmed way

5 types of functional membrane proteins

channel, transporter, enzyme, receptor, structural protein

An Arctic fox growing a thicker fur layer for the winter is an example of a(n)

chronic change

If an animal permits internal and external conditions to be equal, it is said to show

conformity

channel protein

creates a direct water path from one side to the other of a membrane (i.e., an aqueous pore) thru which solutes in aqueous solution may diffuse or water may undergo osmosis, without bonding at all to the channel protein.

Populations of one salmon species differ genetically, and this difference increases as the physical distance between the populations increases. This statement refers to the study of which level of organization? a. Systems physiology incorrect b. Morphology incorrect c. Ecology incorrect d. Evolution

d

Which statement regarding conformity and regulation is false? a. Animals can be both regulators and conformers. b. Conformity and regulation are extremes; intermediate responses are more common. c. Animals frequently show conformity with respect to some characteristics while regulating others. d. Conformity costs more energy to maintain than regulation

d

Which statement regarding the discipline of physiology is false? a. Physiologists study how animals work. b. Physiology is a key discipline for understanding the fundamental biology of all animals. c. Physiology is a key discipline for understanding the health and disease of nonhuman animals. d. Physiology is a key discipline for understanding the social context of human disease.

d

Septate junctions

differ from tight junctions in their fine structure, but they fully encircle each cell. These are mostly seen in invertebrate groups.

interspecific enzyme homologs

different molecular forms of an enzyme coded by homologous gene loci in different species

Interspecific enzyme homologs

different molecular forms of an enzyme coded by homologous gene loci in different species.

isozymes

different molecular forms of an enzyme produced by a single species.

if a fish doesn't have any gills how does it get oxygen?

diffusion

solutes

dissolved substances which move across cell membranes

X in Fick's equation

distance separating high concentration region (C1) from low concentration (C2)

primary active transport

draws energy immediately from ATP. Transporter is ATPase.

secondary active transport

draws energy not from ATP but from an electrochemical gradient solute. (glucose transport across intestinal epithelium)

The study of physiology integrates knowledge at all levels of organization:

ecological/evolutionary, cellular, biochemical

the degree of phospholipid unsaturation depends on

environ. temps. to which various species are adapted

The allosteric site is located on the

enzyme

enzyme-catalyzed complex

enzyme combined with substrate to catalyze a reaction (weak, noncovalent bonds)

When all of the epigenetic marks in a cell or tissue are described together as a set, this global summary of marks is termed the

epigenome

The example of killifish allele frequency distribution along the Atlantic coast describes enzyme changes over a(n) _______ time frame.

evolutionary

In some forms of epigenetic modification, when a gene is "marked," its

expression is semi-permanently altered.

if metabolic energy is not employed to noncovalently bind molecules to transporter proteins it is called

facilitated diffusion

Enzyme Modulators

factors that affect enzyme activity

Compared to rats, humans have

faster brain development relative to their reproductive age

When an allosterically modulated enzyme is the rate-limiting enzyme in a metabolic pathway, the entire pathway may be upregulated or downregulated by allosteric modulation. The result of downregulation of the entire pathway is called

feedback inhibition

Diffusion in Living Systems

gas exchange: during inhalation, oxygen enters alveoli. there is a high concentration of oxygen in Alveoli and low concentration of oxygen in blood capillaries so the oxygen will diffuse out of alveoli down the concentration gradient Into blood capillaries

natural selection

genes that make it more likely for the animal to survive and reproduce will appear more frequently

isolated systems

have no outputs of energy or matter

the lower the Km the ____ the affinity

higher

Environmental physiology

how animals respond physiologically to an environment

which part of a phospholipid molecule is polar?

hydrophilic head

Comparitive method

identifies adaptive traits by comparing how a particular function is carried out by related and unrelated species in similar and dissimilar environments. This method is based on the premise that although we cannot see evolution occurring in the past, the many kinds of animals alive today provide us with many examples of outcomes of evolution, and patterns we identify in these outcomes may provide insights into processes that occurred long ago.

An animal is exposed to halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons, and as a result, its levels of P450 enzymes rise. This is an example of the action of

inducible enzymes

substrates

initial reactants of the reaction.

Conformity

internal and external conditions equal (can lead to death if external conditions are extreme)

Regulation

internal constancy in the face of external variation at the cost of energy

Human LDH-A4 and rat LDH-A4 together are a good example of

interspecific enzyme homologs

sodium is usually gonna move

into the cell

hypoxia

is a condition where oxygen is reduced below normal partial pressures. Hypoxia can occur in air (altitude) and water.

Epithelium

is a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or organ, or lines a cavity.

Reaction velocity

is the amount of substrate converted to product per unit time.

Osmotic pressure

is the property of a solution that allows the prediction of whether the solution will gain or lose water by osmosis when in contact with another solution. Only dissolved materials affect the colligative properties.

if X gets increased what happens to diffusion?

it decreases

A trait is an adaptation if

it has come to be present at high frequency in a population because it confers greater probability of survival and successful reproduction in the prevailing environment than available alternative traits.

how the physiology of young animals differs from adults.

larger amount of brain metabolism (humans), brain performance maturation (bird migration), and specific tissue functions (bullfrogs gills vs lungs)

Luciferin-Luciferase reaction

light is said to be generated when a luciferin—a compound capable of light emission—is oxidized by the action of a luciferase—an enzyme that catalyzes luciferin oxidation.

methylation marks are associated with

lower gene expression

The Dutch Hunger Winter study correlated _______ with subsequent _______.

malnutrition; epigenetic marking

Adaptation

mechanism or trait that is product of natural selection

signal transduction

mechanisms by which a cell modifies its intracellular activities in appropriate ways in response to the extracellular signal.

what are the sub disciples of physiology?

mechanistic, evolutionary, comparative, environmental, and integrative

epigenetics

modifications of gene expression (with no DNA sequence change) that are transmitted when genes replicated (fetal alcohol syndrome)

Epigenetics refers to

modifications of gene expression (with no change in DNA sequence) that are transmitted when genes replicate. correct

simple diffusion

movement of a solute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

Understand the possible origins of a mechanism.

natural selection, adaptation, adaptive significance

Testosterone is released by the testes in response to luteinizing hormone, released from the pituitary gland. As circulating testosterone levels rise, they act on the pituitary gland to reduce the secretion of luteinizing hormone, thus reducing the production of testosterone. This is an example of

negative feedback

The catalytic effectiveness of an enzyme molecule is expressed as the

number of substrate molecules converted to product per second by each enzyme molecule when saturated

Changes controlled by clocks

occur with animals' internal clocks

what are additional factors in determining the diffusion coefficient?

permeability and temperature

The ability of an animal (with a fixed genotype) to express two or more genetically controlled phenotypes is called

phenotypic plasticity

In a bioluminescent animal such as the hydromedusa jellyfish Aequorea victoria, the _______ consist(s) of luciferin, O2, and a protein.

photoprotein

Gap junctions

places where two adjacent cells lack cell membrane boundaries. Small molecules and ions are free to pass through these connections. important for electrophysiology.

Diffusion in a non living system

potassium permanganate diffusing in water

Low _______ diets during postnatal development _______ affect spatial learning in rats.

protein; permanently

facilitated diffusion

proteins bond covalently to solute-specific transporters in the cell membrane

Acute physiological changes

reversible; within minutes/hours of exposure

unsaturation _____ as temperature falls

rises

When there are more substrate molecules than the enzyme molecules can accommodate, the reaction is

saturated

Length of gestation _______ body size in mammals

scales as an exponential function of

Types of phenotypic plasticity

seasonal polyphenism and polyphenic development

comparative method

seeks to identify adaptive traits by comparing how a particular function is carried out by related and unrelated species in similar and dissimilar environments.

DNA microarray

silicon chips or microscope slides with DNA fragments that can allow many genes in a genome to be studied simultaneously

Seasonal polyphenism

specific type of polyphenic development in which one season species is different in body form from the same species developing in another season.

evolutionary physiology

studies evolutionary origins

mechanistic physiology

studies mechanism

examples of phenotypic plasticity

suntan, eye color, menarche age, height with nutrition, mussel shell thickness

The bobtail squid produces bioluminescence due to

symbiotic bacteria

comparative physiology

synthetic study of the function of all animals. Systematically compares the ways various animals carry out similar functions

The 3D conformation of a protein is usually referred to as its _______ structure.

tertiary

Epigenetic marking during early development affects - (examples?)

the animal's lifelong phenotype. e.g. Netherlands famine, starved female rats produce young with lower methylation

homeostasis

the coordinated physiological processes that maintain most of the constant states in the organism

why does the presence of the boundary layer decrease the rate of diffusion?

the effect of the boundary layer on X, which is the distance separating the two concentrations, which would be separated just by the thickness of the outer epithelium otherwise. The boundary layer further separates the concentrations increasing X. Increasing the flow of water over a cell carries solute away from cell surface, decreasing boundary-layer thickness. So increased flow decreases X and increases rate of diffusive solute loss from the cell.

enzyme substrate affinity

the likelihood the enzyme will form a complex with the substrate during a collision. (Measured as Km - half-saturation constant or apparent Michaelis constant.)

Insertion-and-retrieval modulation

the location of channel and transporters is a way of controlling their activity (proton pumps)

principle of mass action

the rate of any chemical reaction is prop. to the product of the masses of the reacting substances, with each mass raised to a power equal to the coefficient that occurs in the chemical equation.

internal environment

the set of conditions—temperature, pH, sodium (Na+) concentration, and so forth—experienced by most cells within an animal's body.

anabolism

the set of processes by which complex chemical compounds are broken down to release energy, create smaller chemical building blocks, or prepare chemical constituents for elimination

catabolism

the set of processes by which complex chemical compounds are broken down to release energy, create smaller chemical building blocks, or prepare chemical constituents for elimination

bulk solution

the solution that is away from contact with a membrane; the concentrations of positive and negative charges, or net charge, is always zero, so charges on solutes do not affect their diffusion in bulk solution

why is body size a physiologically important trait

the statistical relationship between a trait and body size is essential for identifying specializations and adaptations of particular species.

negative feedback

the system opposes deviations of the controlled variable from the set point

boundary layer

the thin layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface formed by the fluid flowing along the surface.

membrane potential

the voltage difference across a membrane

Multiple molecular forms

there might be two or more molecular forms of any channel or transporter (Ca2+

The LDH-Bb increases in the killifish population northward along the Atlantic coast. This is most likely due to

this allele conferring some advantage at colder temperatures.

occulding junctions

tight junctions that serve to create an impermeable or semipermeable barrier between the adjoining epithelial cells (tight and septate)

Modulation of gene expression

types and amounts of channel and transporter proteins that are synthesized are under the control of gene expression (proton pumps)

In the most common protein-degradation mechanism, tagging occurs by the attachment of _______ to the protein targeted to be degraded.

ubiquitin

4 types of gated channels

voltage gated, stretch gated, phosphorylation gated, ligand gated

countertransport

when a transporter moves two solutes in a coupled fashion in the opposite direction

cotransport

when a transporter protein moves two solutes in a coupled fashion in one direction

Polyphenic development

when genetically identical individuals have 2+ distinct body forms, bc of environmental differences (many insects).

allosteric modulation

whenever a protein's function is controlled by ligand-induced shape changes

Tight junction

where cells are joined such that there is no extracellular space between them.

Chronic physiological changes

within days/weeks/months, reversible, acclimation (lab) and anticlimatization (wild)


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