Chapters 1-2, 4-5
Explain how maximum reaction velocity is determined.
# of enzymes and how effective they are at turning the substrate into the product (Expressed as Kcat turnover number)
four types of receptors
(1) ligand-gated channels, (2) G protein-coupled receptors, (3) enzyme/enzyme-linked receptors, and (4) intracellular receptors
Basement membrane
(basal lamina) - thin, permeable, noncellular, nonliving sheet of matrix
Apical surface
(mucosal surface) - facing the cavity or open space
Basal surface
(serosal surface) - toward the underlying tissue
Molarity vs. Molality
-When water is the solvent, dilute solutions have similar molarity and molality. -Molality does not vary with temperature (mass does not change) -Molarity varies with temperature (volume changes)
Limitations of microarrays
-doesn't reveal defects that prevent protein translation later -cannot cure anything -cannot identify every gene behaving inappropriately
phospholipid bilayer
A double layer of phospholipids that makes up plasma and organelle membranes.
Michaelis-Menten Kinetics
A kinetic pattern in which the initial rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction exhibits a hyperbolic dependence on substrate concentration.
what is the importance of membrane fluidity?
Allows diffusion in the plane of membranes Allows redistribution of proteins after synthesis Allows for redistribution following cell division
ligand-gated channel
An ion channel that is stimulated to open by the binding of a small molecule such as a neurotransmitter. acts as both a receptor and a gated channel.
Which cue is responsible for producing the two phenotypes in the western white butterfly?
Both temperature and day length
describe oxygen storage ability in hooded seals (aged 6 months to adult).
By the time they have reached adulthood, the amount of O2 that can be stored per gram of tissue has tripled.
DNA methylation
CH3 attaches to cytosine (most commonly on a promotor)
example of mechanism and adaptive significance being exclusive
Cephalopods and fish have similar retinas built on different structures; cephalopods have multiple optic nerves, fish have one
which ion is electrochemically neutral
Cl-
Which subdiscipline of physiology covers the synthetic study of the function of all animals?
Comparative physiology
physiological mechanism
Components of actual living animals and the interactions among them that enable them to perform as they do (I.e. light production by fireflies is due to microscopic gas-filled tubules)
Define mechanism and relate to physiology.
Components of actual living animals and the interactions among them that enable them to perform as they do (ie fireflies)
2 major mechanisms of epigenetic marking
DNA methylation & covalent modification of histones
The major mechanism(s) of epigenetic marking is(are)
DNA methylation and covalent modification of histones.
Electrolytes present additional complexities for predicting colligative properties - WHY?
Electrolytes break into additional particles
active transport
Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference
Studying the effects of high altitude on human hiking ability would fall under which subdiscipline?
Environmental physiology
How does the environment affect growth in children?
Environmental stresses tend to impair growth.
Compare and contrast an enzyme versus a catalyst
Enzyme is the organic catalyst; Enzymes are proteins that increase rate of chemical reactions converting substrate into product. Catalysts are substances that increase or decrease the rate of a chemical reaction but remain unchanged.
Enzymatic changes measured in a population typically occur on what time frame?
Evolutionary
Explain all of the factors that can affect enzyme conformation.
Factors such as pH, temperature, effectors, and inhibitors
True or False: All epithelial cells have microvilli.
False
microvilli
Fingerlike extensions of plasma membrane of apical epithelial cells, increase surface area and aid in absorbtion (exist on every moist epithelia, but most dense in small intestine and kidney)
example of developmental physiology
From weanling to adult, O2 stores in hooded seals double with the largest change seen in muscle myoglobin.
Which receptor protein brings about cascades of membrane proteins involving significant amplification?
G protein-coupled receptor
Which receptor proteins activate enzymes on the cell membrane?
G protein-coupled receptor and enzyme/enzyme-linked receptor
When epinephrine attaches to a(n) _______, the process of _______ results in the formation of a large amount of intracellular _______.
G protein-coupled receptor; amplification; glucose
Which cell-cell junctions allow cytoplasmic flow between the connected cells?
Gap junction correct
Within the mitochondria, _______ crosses the inner mitochondrial membrane to turn _______ and ultimately produce _______.
H+; the rotor of ATP synthase; ATP
difference between bioluminescence and florescence
In fluorescence, light is not produced de novo; instead, preexisting light is absorbed and re-emitted at longer wavelengths.
Which receptor protein interacts with DNA?
Intracellular receptor
In simple solute equation as follows: J = D [(C1-C2)/X] what is J and what is it proportional to?
J is the net # of solute molecules passing into the low concentration region per second through each unit of cross sectional area. It is directly proportional to the difference in concentration (C1-C2). (the rate of diffusion increases as the distance between between the concentration decreases (X is inversely proportional to J).)
limitations of simple diffusion
Large polar molecules cannot diffuse across Non-polar and small molecules can
Which receptor protein changes membrane voltage immediately when activated?
Ligand-gated channel
What is the developmental relationship between marine periwinkle snails and crabs?
Marine periwinkles develop thicker shells in waters with crabs present. correct
Which statement regarding white-footed mouse development is true?
Metabolic rate increases dramatically during the nestling period
What is the process by which cells and organisms acquire, rearrange, and void commodities in ways that sustain life?
Metabolism
Diffusion
Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
cone snail muscle contraction
NT acetylcholine released by nerve cell binds noncovalently to the receptor sites of acetylch receptors (ligand-gated channels) on surface of muscle cell. Channels then open, allow Na+ and K+ ions flowing through cell membrane of the muscle, changing voltage across membrane and the muscle contracts. Venom toxins made by fish-eating cone snails attack these ligand-gated channel receptors , & as other cone snail toxins attack voltage-gated Na+ channels.
Which source contributes to the oxygen stores of the hooded seal?
O2 in the lungs and O2 attached to blood hemoglobin and muscle myoglobin
Which is the most accurate description of the mechanism of the light-emitting reaction in the firefly?
Oxygen reacts with luciferyl-AMP to produce light
Which of the following is not involved at the cell membrane in a second-messenger cascade?
Phospholipase C
______ is a phenomenon in which genetically identical individuals can assume two or more distinct body forms, induced by differences in the environment.
Polyphenic development
Which of the following is not a functional type of membrane protein?
Resistance
Migratory locusts can either take on the solitary or gregarious phenotype (both morphology and behavior) What external and internal signals are involved ?
Solitarys are colored in inconspicuous ways, they are difficult to find. When they come into continuous contact, they transform within a few hours to gregarious and associate avidly with others. That transformation is the starting point for swarm formation. Serotonin and Dopamine are involved.
What does research on squid have to do with human physiology?
Squid nerve cells are large, easily studied, and function like human nerve cells
enzyme-product complex
Substrate is converted to product while united with the enzyme
phenotypic plasticity
The ability of a single animal (with a fixed genotype) to express two or more genetically controlled phenotypes. Needs to be able to change.
Noncovalent and covalent modulation
The channel and transporter proteins in a membrane are often subject to modulation (allosteric/noncovelent and covalent) - allow for rapid adjustment of function
Which statement regarding brain phospholipids in fish is most accurate?
The colder the habitat, the greater the degree of phospholipid unsaturation in the brain synaptic membranes.
electrical gradient (membrane potential)
The inner surface of the membrane is more negatively charged and the outer surface is more positively charged
enzyme-catalyzed reactions
The reaction is faster with an enzyme present than without the enzyme present (hyperbolic or sigmoid kinetics)
Which of the following is an example of a possible physiological effect a river dam could impose on migrating Pacific salmon?
The salmon may get past the dam, but their efforts cost them too much energy.
How does the cell keep potassium in and sodium out?
The sodium-potassium pump system moves sodium and potassium ions against large concentration gradients. It moves two potassium ions into the cell where potassium levels are high, and pumps three sodium ions out of the cell and into the extracellular fluid.
Michaelis constant (Km)
The substrate concentration at which an enzyme-catalyzed reaction proceeds at one-half its maximum velocity.
phospholipid saturated vs unsaturated
The terms saturated and unsaturated refer to whether or not double bonds are present between the carbons in the fatty acid tails.
What is the proposed advantage to locusts adopting the gregarious phenotype?
The voracious behavior of swarms enables locusts in a swarm to collect large quantities of food.
Which statement regarding fish eyes and octopus eyes is most accurate?
They are similar in gross appearance, functional performance, and adaptive significance but differ in their mechanisms
What happens when phospholipid molecules are placed in an aqueous solution?
They form a bilayer with hydrophobic ends facing inward.
True or False: Enzymes are involved in circadian rhythms.
True
True or False: Human LDH-A (lactate dehydrogenase) and Killifish LDH-C both catalyze the same chemical reaction.
True
True or False: Metabolism includes both anabolism and catabolism.
True
True or False: Salmon have a limited supply of energy for the migration to their spawning grounds.
True
True or False; Some populations of sandpipers can fly over 5000 km at a time without eating.
True
Fick equation
VO2 = Q x A-VO2 diff
Adaptive Significance
WHY natural selection valued evolution of the trait
Relate epigenetics to phenotypic plasticity
When epigenetic responses are inherited, whether spontaneous or environmentally induced, the result is selectable phenotypic variation and adaptive evolution. Alternatively, when epigenetic changes are not inherited, the result is phenotypic plasticity.
Examples of epigenetic control of polyphonic development
Worker and queen honeybees - same genotype, but if DNA methylation blocked, a worker becomes queen; DNA methylation relates head size and foraging behavior in carpenter ants
For many fish species, 99% of individuals die before they complete larval development. Why is this ?
Young fish do not have gills but they do have chloride cells.
When studying acute cardiac function, what is of prime physiological importance? a. Oxygenation of all parts of the heart muscle correct b. Heart morphology incorrect c. How diet affects the heart incorrect d. How exercise affects the heart incorrect
a
Which statement regarding fish gills best approximates the description of a mechanism? a. Freshwater fish use ATP to pump ions inward across the gill membrane. b. Fish with more gill surface area have an advantage in hypoxic water. c. Gills evolved as an organ to extract oxygen from the water. d. The larger the fish, the larger the gill surface area must be to support its metabolism.
a
evolution
a change of gene frequencies over time in a population of organisms.
Desmosome
a junction at which mutually adhering glycoprotein filaments from two adjacent cells intermingle across the space between cells.
Which of the following represents a biochemical aspect of predator/prey interactions? a. The production of ATP b .The contractile properties of the muscle cells c. The percentage chance that the predator is successful in a hunting run d. The ratio of predators to prey items
a.
The surprise of a phone call at 3:00 am results in an increase in heart rate. This is an example of a(n)
acute change
Evolutionary changes
alteration of gene frequencies over the course of many generations after exposure
The physiology of very young animals _______ differs from that of adults.
always correct
Multiple-enzyme sequences in which each enzyme in the sequence activates another enzyme is an example of
amplification
Nonadaptive evolution
an allele with lower probability of survival/reproduction becomes predominant from chance (chance = genetic drift)
Photocytes
animal cells in which produce bioluminescence (fireflies, fish, invertebrates)
Food that has just entered the small intestine is in contact with the _______ of the intestinal epithelial cells.
apical surface
colligative properties of an aqueous solution
are the properties that depend simply on the number of dissolved entities per unit volume rather than the nature of the entities.
Structural Protein
attaches to other molecules (e.g.proteins) to anchor intracellular elements (e.g., cytoskeleton filaments) to cell membrane, creates junctions between cells, or establishes other structural relations.
Choose the best description of a chronic physiological response. a. Being frightened by a sudden loud noise b. Having improved heart health from exercise c. Digesting a meal d. Being heterozygous for sickle cell anemia
b
how is active transport implicated in freshwater fish?
because of osmotic pressures in their blood that exceed osmotic pressure of freshwater, they gain water by osmosis, especially across gills. They use active transport to take in salt, then excrete urine.
Receptor protein
binds noncovalently with specific molecules and initiates change in membrane permeability/cell metabolism.
Transporter protein
binds noncovalently with specific molecules/ions to move them across a membrane intact.
The best way to study the energetic requirements of long-distance bird migrations is a. to study what they eat. b. to fly them in a wind tunnel. c. to use a combination of wind tunnel measurements and field observations. d. to use sensors attached to the birds during the entire migration.
c
which research topic best studies physiology? a. Food choices of salmon b. How population reduction in salmon affects related species c. Intestinal modifications that allow increased food processing d. Difference in fish muscle shapes according to closely related species
c
Which situation has been shown to demonstrate epigenetic marking? a. Birds learning the North Star. incorrect b. Marine molluscs forming thicker shells in the presence of predators. incorrect c. Honeybees fed royal jelly to produce a queen. d. Children not reaching their full potential height due to lack of nutrients. incorrect
c.
covalent modifications of histones
can be by methylation, acetylation, phosphorylation
The reaction of isocitrate (a 6-carbon molecule) to α-ketoglutarate (a 5-carbon molecule) is an excellent example of
catabolism
receptors
certain protein molecules of the cell with which neutrotransmitters or hormones bind
Developmental changes
changes in individual physiology occurring in programmed way
5 types of functional membrane proteins
channel, transporter, enzyme, receptor, structural protein
An Arctic fox growing a thicker fur layer for the winter is an example of a(n)
chronic change
If an animal permits internal and external conditions to be equal, it is said to show
conformity
channel protein
creates a direct water path from one side to the other of a membrane (i.e., an aqueous pore) thru which solutes in aqueous solution may diffuse or water may undergo osmosis, without bonding at all to the channel protein.
Populations of one salmon species differ genetically, and this difference increases as the physical distance between the populations increases. This statement refers to the study of which level of organization? a. Systems physiology incorrect b. Morphology incorrect c. Ecology incorrect d. Evolution
d
Which statement regarding conformity and regulation is false? a. Animals can be both regulators and conformers. b. Conformity and regulation are extremes; intermediate responses are more common. c. Animals frequently show conformity with respect to some characteristics while regulating others. d. Conformity costs more energy to maintain than regulation
d
Which statement regarding the discipline of physiology is false? a. Physiologists study how animals work. b. Physiology is a key discipline for understanding the fundamental biology of all animals. c. Physiology is a key discipline for understanding the health and disease of nonhuman animals. d. Physiology is a key discipline for understanding the social context of human disease.
d
Septate junctions
differ from tight junctions in their fine structure, but they fully encircle each cell. These are mostly seen in invertebrate groups.
interspecific enzyme homologs
different molecular forms of an enzyme coded by homologous gene loci in different species
Interspecific enzyme homologs
different molecular forms of an enzyme coded by homologous gene loci in different species.
isozymes
different molecular forms of an enzyme produced by a single species.
if a fish doesn't have any gills how does it get oxygen?
diffusion
solutes
dissolved substances which move across cell membranes
X in Fick's equation
distance separating high concentration region (C1) from low concentration (C2)
primary active transport
draws energy immediately from ATP. Transporter is ATPase.
secondary active transport
draws energy not from ATP but from an electrochemical gradient solute. (glucose transport across intestinal epithelium)
The study of physiology integrates knowledge at all levels of organization:
ecological/evolutionary, cellular, biochemical
the degree of phospholipid unsaturation depends on
environ. temps. to which various species are adapted
The allosteric site is located on the
enzyme
enzyme-catalyzed complex
enzyme combined with substrate to catalyze a reaction (weak, noncovalent bonds)
When all of the epigenetic marks in a cell or tissue are described together as a set, this global summary of marks is termed the
epigenome
The example of killifish allele frequency distribution along the Atlantic coast describes enzyme changes over a(n) _______ time frame.
evolutionary
In some forms of epigenetic modification, when a gene is "marked," its
expression is semi-permanently altered.
if metabolic energy is not employed to noncovalently bind molecules to transporter proteins it is called
facilitated diffusion
Enzyme Modulators
factors that affect enzyme activity
Compared to rats, humans have
faster brain development relative to their reproductive age
When an allosterically modulated enzyme is the rate-limiting enzyme in a metabolic pathway, the entire pathway may be upregulated or downregulated by allosteric modulation. The result of downregulation of the entire pathway is called
feedback inhibition
Diffusion in Living Systems
gas exchange: during inhalation, oxygen enters alveoli. there is a high concentration of oxygen in Alveoli and low concentration of oxygen in blood capillaries so the oxygen will diffuse out of alveoli down the concentration gradient Into blood capillaries
natural selection
genes that make it more likely for the animal to survive and reproduce will appear more frequently
isolated systems
have no outputs of energy or matter
the lower the Km the ____ the affinity
higher
Environmental physiology
how animals respond physiologically to an environment
which part of a phospholipid molecule is polar?
hydrophilic head
Comparitive method
identifies adaptive traits by comparing how a particular function is carried out by related and unrelated species in similar and dissimilar environments. This method is based on the premise that although we cannot see evolution occurring in the past, the many kinds of animals alive today provide us with many examples of outcomes of evolution, and patterns we identify in these outcomes may provide insights into processes that occurred long ago.
An animal is exposed to halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons, and as a result, its levels of P450 enzymes rise. This is an example of the action of
inducible enzymes
substrates
initial reactants of the reaction.
Conformity
internal and external conditions equal (can lead to death if external conditions are extreme)
Regulation
internal constancy in the face of external variation at the cost of energy
Human LDH-A4 and rat LDH-A4 together are a good example of
interspecific enzyme homologs
sodium is usually gonna move
into the cell
hypoxia
is a condition where oxygen is reduced below normal partial pressures. Hypoxia can occur in air (altitude) and water.
Epithelium
is a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or organ, or lines a cavity.
Reaction velocity
is the amount of substrate converted to product per unit time.
Osmotic pressure
is the property of a solution that allows the prediction of whether the solution will gain or lose water by osmosis when in contact with another solution. Only dissolved materials affect the colligative properties.
if X gets increased what happens to diffusion?
it decreases
A trait is an adaptation if
it has come to be present at high frequency in a population because it confers greater probability of survival and successful reproduction in the prevailing environment than available alternative traits.
how the physiology of young animals differs from adults.
larger amount of brain metabolism (humans), brain performance maturation (bird migration), and specific tissue functions (bullfrogs gills vs lungs)
Luciferin-Luciferase reaction
light is said to be generated when a luciferin—a compound capable of light emission—is oxidized by the action of a luciferase—an enzyme that catalyzes luciferin oxidation.
methylation marks are associated with
lower gene expression
The Dutch Hunger Winter study correlated _______ with subsequent _______.
malnutrition; epigenetic marking
Adaptation
mechanism or trait that is product of natural selection
signal transduction
mechanisms by which a cell modifies its intracellular activities in appropriate ways in response to the extracellular signal.
what are the sub disciples of physiology?
mechanistic, evolutionary, comparative, environmental, and integrative
epigenetics
modifications of gene expression (with no DNA sequence change) that are transmitted when genes replicated (fetal alcohol syndrome)
Epigenetics refers to
modifications of gene expression (with no change in DNA sequence) that are transmitted when genes replicate. correct
simple diffusion
movement of a solute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
Understand the possible origins of a mechanism.
natural selection, adaptation, adaptive significance
Testosterone is released by the testes in response to luteinizing hormone, released from the pituitary gland. As circulating testosterone levels rise, they act on the pituitary gland to reduce the secretion of luteinizing hormone, thus reducing the production of testosterone. This is an example of
negative feedback
The catalytic effectiveness of an enzyme molecule is expressed as the
number of substrate molecules converted to product per second by each enzyme molecule when saturated
Changes controlled by clocks
occur with animals' internal clocks
what are additional factors in determining the diffusion coefficient?
permeability and temperature
The ability of an animal (with a fixed genotype) to express two or more genetically controlled phenotypes is called
phenotypic plasticity
In a bioluminescent animal such as the hydromedusa jellyfish Aequorea victoria, the _______ consist(s) of luciferin, O2, and a protein.
photoprotein
Gap junctions
places where two adjacent cells lack cell membrane boundaries. Small molecules and ions are free to pass through these connections. important for electrophysiology.
Diffusion in a non living system
potassium permanganate diffusing in water
Low _______ diets during postnatal development _______ affect spatial learning in rats.
protein; permanently
facilitated diffusion
proteins bond covalently to solute-specific transporters in the cell membrane
Acute physiological changes
reversible; within minutes/hours of exposure
unsaturation _____ as temperature falls
rises
When there are more substrate molecules than the enzyme molecules can accommodate, the reaction is
saturated
Length of gestation _______ body size in mammals
scales as an exponential function of
Types of phenotypic plasticity
seasonal polyphenism and polyphenic development
comparative method
seeks to identify adaptive traits by comparing how a particular function is carried out by related and unrelated species in similar and dissimilar environments.
DNA microarray
silicon chips or microscope slides with DNA fragments that can allow many genes in a genome to be studied simultaneously
Seasonal polyphenism
specific type of polyphenic development in which one season species is different in body form from the same species developing in another season.
evolutionary physiology
studies evolutionary origins
mechanistic physiology
studies mechanism
examples of phenotypic plasticity
suntan, eye color, menarche age, height with nutrition, mussel shell thickness
The bobtail squid produces bioluminescence due to
symbiotic bacteria
comparative physiology
synthetic study of the function of all animals. Systematically compares the ways various animals carry out similar functions
The 3D conformation of a protein is usually referred to as its _______ structure.
tertiary
Epigenetic marking during early development affects - (examples?)
the animal's lifelong phenotype. e.g. Netherlands famine, starved female rats produce young with lower methylation
homeostasis
the coordinated physiological processes that maintain most of the constant states in the organism
why does the presence of the boundary layer decrease the rate of diffusion?
the effect of the boundary layer on X, which is the distance separating the two concentrations, which would be separated just by the thickness of the outer epithelium otherwise. The boundary layer further separates the concentrations increasing X. Increasing the flow of water over a cell carries solute away from cell surface, decreasing boundary-layer thickness. So increased flow decreases X and increases rate of diffusive solute loss from the cell.
enzyme substrate affinity
the likelihood the enzyme will form a complex with the substrate during a collision. (Measured as Km - half-saturation constant or apparent Michaelis constant.)
Insertion-and-retrieval modulation
the location of channel and transporters is a way of controlling their activity (proton pumps)
principle of mass action
the rate of any chemical reaction is prop. to the product of the masses of the reacting substances, with each mass raised to a power equal to the coefficient that occurs in the chemical equation.
internal environment
the set of conditions—temperature, pH, sodium (Na+) concentration, and so forth—experienced by most cells within an animal's body.
anabolism
the set of processes by which complex chemical compounds are broken down to release energy, create smaller chemical building blocks, or prepare chemical constituents for elimination
catabolism
the set of processes by which complex chemical compounds are broken down to release energy, create smaller chemical building blocks, or prepare chemical constituents for elimination
bulk solution
the solution that is away from contact with a membrane; the concentrations of positive and negative charges, or net charge, is always zero, so charges on solutes do not affect their diffusion in bulk solution
why is body size a physiologically important trait
the statistical relationship between a trait and body size is essential for identifying specializations and adaptations of particular species.
negative feedback
the system opposes deviations of the controlled variable from the set point
boundary layer
the thin layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface formed by the fluid flowing along the surface.
membrane potential
the voltage difference across a membrane
Multiple molecular forms
there might be two or more molecular forms of any channel or transporter (Ca2+
The LDH-Bb increases in the killifish population northward along the Atlantic coast. This is most likely due to
this allele conferring some advantage at colder temperatures.
occulding junctions
tight junctions that serve to create an impermeable or semipermeable barrier between the adjoining epithelial cells (tight and septate)
Modulation of gene expression
types and amounts of channel and transporter proteins that are synthesized are under the control of gene expression (proton pumps)
In the most common protein-degradation mechanism, tagging occurs by the attachment of _______ to the protein targeted to be degraded.
ubiquitin
4 types of gated channels
voltage gated, stretch gated, phosphorylation gated, ligand gated
countertransport
when a transporter moves two solutes in a coupled fashion in the opposite direction
cotransport
when a transporter protein moves two solutes in a coupled fashion in one direction
Polyphenic development
when genetically identical individuals have 2+ distinct body forms, bc of environmental differences (many insects).
allosteric modulation
whenever a protein's function is controlled by ligand-induced shape changes
Tight junction
where cells are joined such that there is no extracellular space between them.
Chronic physiological changes
within days/weeks/months, reversible, acclimation (lab) and anticlimatization (wild)