Chemistry
Reactants
A starting material in a chemical reaction
nonelectrolyte
A substance that will not dissociate into ions when dissolved in water will not be able to conduct electricity
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Brønsted-Lowrey (acid and base definition)
Acids : H+ donor Base: H+ acceptor
Arrhenius (acid and base definition)
Acids: H+ producer Bases: OH- producer
electrolyte
An ionic compound whose aqueous solution conducts an electric current is called an electrolyte.
Alcohol
An organic compound in which a hydroxyl group replaces a hydrogen atom of a hydrocarbon.
Cyclic hydrocarbon:
An organic compound that contains a hydrocarbon ring.
Aldehyde
An organic molecule with a carbonyl group located at the end of the carbon skeleton. O II *- C- R Functional group: Carbonyl
There is two types of Isomers:
1. Structural isomers: Have the same chemical formula, but their atoms are bonded in different arrangements.(dimethyl propane)(All of them have five carbons, but in different arrangement) 2. Stereoisomers: Are isomers in which all atoms are bonded in the same order but are arranged differently in space, it includes
Organic Reactions There are 5 chemical reactions:
1. Substitution reactions 2. Elimination Reactions 3. Addition Reactions 4. Oxidation Reduction Reactions 5. Condensation Reactions (dehydration)
Chemical reactions are divided into 5 main types
1. Synthesis reaction 2. Decomposition reaction 3. Replacement reaction 4. Combustion reaction 5. Redox reactions
The naming of the common binary acid known as hydrochloric acid is explained in the following rules.
1. The first word has the prefix hydro- to name the hydrogen part of the compound. The rest of the first word consists of a form of the root of the second element plus the suffix -ic. HCl (hydrogen and chlorine) becomes hydrochloric. 2. The second word is always acid. Thus, HCl in a water solution is called hydrochloric acid. few acids that contain more than two elements are named according to the rules for naming binary acids. If no oxygen is present in the formula for the acidic compound, the acid is named in the same way as a binary acid, except that the root of the second part of the name is the root of the polyatomic ion that the acid contains. For example, HCN, which is composed of hydrogen and the cyanide ion, is called hydrocyanic acid in solution.
A phase diagram for any substance contains: (they are 5 things)
1. Three areas that represent the three physical states (solid, liquid, and gas) 2. Three curves that separate the physical state areas. 3. A triple point, which is the point on a phase diagram that represents the temperature and pressure at which three phases of a substance can coexist. 4. A critical point, which indicates the critical pressure and critical temperature above which water cannot exist as a liquid. 5. Two variables: Temperature and Pressure.
Greater lattice energy=
1. greater charges 2. Smaller ionic distance
KE=
1/2mv^2
there is a --- percent difference in density between solids and liquids
10 percent
Calculate the number of mols in 12x10^23 atoms of silver
12x10^23/6.02x10^23=2mols
ite=
2
CH3CHBrCH2CH2CH2 IUPAC name
2- Bromopentane
prefix per=
4 oxygen
Calculate the number of molecules in 4 mols of water
4*(6.02x10^23)=24.08x10^23molecules.
What is the molar mass of Ca if its atomic mass is 40 amu
40 g/mol
What is the molar mass of calcium chloride CaCl2 (Cl=35.5 Ca=40)
40+(35.5x2)= 111 g/mol
One atmosphere is equal to
760 mmHg or 760 torr or 101.3 kilopascals (kPa).
Mass of an electron=
9.1x10*-28 g = 1/1840 of the mass of a hydrogen atom
Numerical value of gravitational acceleration
9.8 m/s
Endothermic
A chemical reaction or physical change is endothermic if heat is absorbed by the system from the surroundings.
Exothermic
A chemical reaction or physical change is exothermic if heat is released by the system into the surroundings. Because the surroundings is gaining heat from the system, the temperature of the surroundings increases.
Dipole
A dipoleforms, with part of the molecule carrying a slight positive charge and the other part carrying a slight negative charge.
Molecule
A group of atoms bonded together
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon that has at least one double (Alkenes) or triple bond (Alkynes) between carbon atoms.
Theory
A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data Hypothesis supposed by many experiments
Van Der Waals forces
(aka London forces or dispersion forces) : relatively weak intermolecular forces holding nonpolar molecules together and characterized by: 1- it connects covalent nonpolar molecules 2- weak intermolecular forces. 3- increases in power with the increase of molecular molar mass
Alpha in math
- 4/-2
Equations show
-the reactants which enter into a reaction -the products which are formed by the reaction -the amounts of each substance used and each substance produced
Beta in math
0/+1
An atom's lowest principal energy level is assigned a principal quantum number of
1
(single bond) 1 line =
1 sigma
- - -
1 sigma, 2 pi
NH2CH2CH2CH2NH2
1, 3-propanediamine
Unsaturated open chain
1. Alkenes C(n)H(2n) 2.Alkynes C(n)H(2n+2)
Naming ionic compounds
1. Name the cation followed by the anion. Remember that the cation is always written first in the formula. 2. For monatomic cations, use the element name. 3. For monatomic anions, use the root of the element name plus the suffix -ide. 4. To distinguish between multiple oxidation numbers of the same element, the name of the chemical formula must indicate the oxidation number of the cation. The oxidation number is written as a Roman numeral in parentheses after the name of the cation. 5. When the compound contains a polyatomic ion, simply name the cation followed by the name of the polyatomic ion. Note: This rule applies to the transition metals and metals on the right side of the periodic table, which often have more than one oxidation number. It does not apply to group 1 and group 2 cations, as they have only one oxidation number.
Chemists use mols to
calculate the number of atoms or representative particles
Carboxylic acid
carboxyl group
Expanded octet
compounds has central atoms with more than 8 valance electrons
Carbohydrates
compounds that contain multiple hydroxyl groups and carbonyl group (ketone or aldehyde).
If the known element is given as mass, it can be converted into mole by
dividing it by its molar mass.
Neutral solutions are
either acidic nor basic.
For a hydrogen bond to form hydrogen must be bonded to
either fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen atom
The electric field will deflect radiation in different directions, depending on the -- of the radiation
electric charge
The salt bridge and wire provide an unbroken pathway for
electrical charge to flow
Dispersion is weak because of
electron cloud repulsion
Limits of Bohr's Model
electrons do not move around the nucleus in circular orbits does not account for chemical behavior of atoms
Electrolysis is used
electroplating, purification of metals, and production of aluminum, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The most stable, lowest-energy arrangement of the electrons is called the
element's ground-state electron configuration.
The loss of energy results in
element+
transition elements
elements in groups 3-12
Inner Transition metals
elements that appear below the main body of the periodic table. Lanthanide series (used extensively as phosphors, substances that emit light when struck by electrons) and Actinide series
When the Δ H rxn is positive the reaction is said to be
endothermic and is written in the reactants
Principal energy levels contain
energy sublevels.
The redo reaction provide --- to ---- the bulb.
energy to light the bulb
C2H2
ethyne
Pressure=
force/area
Organic Chemistry
forcuses on carbon containing compounds Ex. Plastic
Interstitial alloys
formed when the small holes in a metallic crystal are filled with smaller atoms example is carbon steel. Holes in iron crystal are filled with carbon atoms and the physical properties of iron are change iron is soft and malleable however the presence of carbon makes the solid harder, stronger, and less ductile than pure iron.
Coordinate covalent bond
forms when one atom donates both of the electrons to be shared with an atom or ion that needs two electrons to form a stable electron arrangement with lower potential energy.
If the pressure was above the triple point it would go
from solid to liquid to gas
example of amorphous solid
glass, rubber, plastic
Transition Metals
groups 3-12 Titanium is so strong, it is used to make frames for bicycles and eye glasses.
Atomic radius of metals
half the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent atoms in the crystal.
Metalloids
have physical and chemical properties of both metals and nonmetals. Ex: Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge).
thermochemistry
heat involved in chemical processes Ex. Heat of reaction
Evidence of chemical reactions
is change in color, taste, elimination of gas, or a precipitate.
Pressure
is defined as force per unit area.
Ionization energy
is defined as the energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom.
For nonelectrolytes, the value of the boiling point elevation, which is symbolized ΔTb ,
is directly propor- tional to the solution's molality.
Ionic compound
is neutral because the positive charges equal the negative charges.
A heterogeneous mixture
is one that does not blend smoothly throughout and in which the individual substance remains distinct.
Empirical formula
is the formula with the smallest whole-number mol ratio of the elements. It can be the same as the original chemical formula, or the chemical formula can be a simple multiple of the empirical formula.
Enthalpy (H)
is the heat content of a system at constant pressure.
Tyndall effect:
is the scattering of light due to the dispersed colloid particles.
The atomic emission spectrum of an element
is the set of frequencies of the electromagnetic waves emitted by atoms of the element.
unit cell
is the smallest arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice that has the same symmetry as the whole crystal.
Conjugate acid
is the species produced when a base accepts a hydrogen ion.
Conjugate base
is the species that results when an acid donates a hydrogen ion.
Chromatography
is the technique that separates the components of a mixture dissolved in either a gas or a liquid based on the ability on each component to travel or to be drawn across the surface of a fixed substrate.
Boiling point elevation
is the temperature difference between a solution's boiling point and a pure solvent's boiling point.
Electrolysis
is the use to electrical energy to drive a non-spontaneous reaction.
A constant
is variable that is not allowed to change during the experiment.
Polar covalent bond
is when different elements have different electronegativities, the electron pairs in a covalent bond between different atoms are not shared equally.
How do soaps and detergent decrease surface tension?
it breaks the hydrogen atoms and water allows the spread out of wrist to be carried by water
Group 1 metals have --- ionization energy
low
Osmosis plays an important role in
many biological systems, such as the uptake of nutrients by plants.
All the gas particles have the same --- but different ---, therefore the ---- is not the same for all.
mass velocity kinetic energy
Moles (mole)=
mass (g)/ formula or atomic mass
balanced equations reflects
mass and charge balances
Weight equals
mass multiplied by gravitational acceleration.
Neutrons number
mass number - atomic number.
Percent by mass =
mass of element in 1 mol of compound/ molar mass of compound x 100
Line between liquid and solid
melting point line
Phase changes that require energy
melting, vaporization, sublimation
Semipermeable
membranes are barriers that allow some, but not all, particles to cross.
alkaline earth metals
metallic elements in group 2 of the periodic table which are harder than the alkali metals and are also highly reactive. Calcium (minerals good for health), Magnesium(solid, light used in computers). Beryllium Magnesium Calcium Strontium Barium Radium
Molarity
moles of solute kilogram of solvent
simplest type of carbohydrate example:
monosaccharide glucose and fructose.
In general, the particles in a solid are ---- thus
more closely packed than those in a liquid. Thus, most solids are more dense than most liquids.
lower energy states are
more stable
ate=
more than 2
less than 0.4 electronegative difference
mostly covalent
electronegativity difference more than 1.7
mostly ionic
Osmotic pressure
movement of water across a semipermeable membrane, with the solvent (water, for example) moving from an area of low solute (dissolved material) concentration to an area of high solute concentration. In this case, the semipermeable membrane does not allow the solute to pass through.
He suggested that the electron in a hydrogen atom
moves around the nucleus in only certain allowed circular orbits.
Tolune
mp= -93C
Benzene
mp= 5.5C
at 25C and 1 atm liquids are
much denser than gas and its vapor
In order to calculate the numbers of Hydrogen ions
multiply the concentration of the acid with the number of the acid. And the same thing goes for the knowing of the number Hydroxide ions.
Collision theory which states that particles --- depends on-- (4 points)
must collide in order to react. The number of collisions between reacting particles depends on the concentration of the particles. o By increasing the concentration of reactants the number of effective collisions between them increases producing more product compound making the rate of forward reaction increase. o In time, the rate of the forward reaction slows down as the concentrations of the reactants will decrease. Simultaneously, the rate of the reverse reaction increases as more. Product molecules are produced. Eventually, a new equilibrium position is established o Any increase in the concentration of a reactant results in a shift to the right and additional product. o Removing products Suppose that rather than injecting more reactant, the chemist decides to remove a product. The equilibrium shifts to the right and results in additional product.
In general, compounds that occur -- are more stable than the individual component elements.
naturally
Troposphere
nearest layer to earth, contains 75-80 percent of atmosphere's mass it is where weather, clouds are located.
H20 melting point has a --- slope
negative (as you move to the right the Line decreases in melting line)
Electron
negatively charged particle, has a very low mass, and moves in high speed.
no ionization(disassociation)=
no electrolyte
The Arrhenius Model:
o An acid is a substance that contains hydrogen and ionizes to produce hydrogen ions in aqueous solution. o A base is a substance that contains a hydroxide group and dissociates to produce a hydroxide ion in aqueous solution.
The Kinetic-Molecular Theory:-
o Gas particles are very small compared to the empty areas between them. o Gas particles experience no significant attractive or repulsive forces. o Gas particles are in constant, random motion and move in a straight line until they collide with other particles or with the walls of their container. o Collisions between gas particles are elastic. An elastic collision is one in which no kinetic energy is lost. Kinetic energy can be transferred between colliding particles, but the total kinetic energy of the two particles does not change. o Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter.
Properties of metals include:
o Malleability, ductility, and durability o Hardness and strength o High melting and boiling points o High thermal and electrical conductivity
Esters RCOOR :
o Organic compounds derived from Carboxylic acids by changing a Hydrogen by Carboxyl group. o Naming: Alkyl Alkanoate. o e.g: CH3COOCH2CH2CH3 Propyl ethanoate CH3(CH2)4COOCH3 Methyl hexanoate
Amide:
o Organic compounds formed by changing-OH in Carboxylic acids to a Nitrogen atom. o Naming: Alkanamide o e.g: Ch2CONH2 Ethanamide CH3(CH2)3CONH2 Pentanamide
There are several ways to protect metals against corrosion:
o Painting the surface of the metal o Coating the metal with another metal o Using sacrificial anodes
Naming branched-chain alkanes:
o Step 1 Count the number of carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain. Use the name of the straight-chain alkane with that number of carbons as the name of the parent chain of the structure. o Step 2 Number each carbon in the parent chain. Locate the end carbon closest to a substituent group. Label that carbon Position 1. This step gives all the substituent groups the lowest position numbers possible. o Step3. Name each alkyl group substituent. Place the name of the group before the name of the parent chain. o Step 4. If the same alkyl group occurs more than once as a branch on the parent structure, use a prefix (di-, tri-, tetra-, and so on) before its name to indicate how many times it appears. Then, use the number of the carbon to which each is attached to indicate its position. o Step 5. When different alkyl groups are attached to the same parent structure, placet heir names in alphabetical order. Do not consider the prefixes (di-, tri-, and so on) when determining alphabetical order. o Step 6. Write the entire name, using hyphens to separate numbers from words and commas to separate numbers. Do not add a space between the substituent name and the name of the parent chain.
Naming Alkynes:
o Straight-chain alkynes and branched-chain alkynes are named in the same way as alkenes.The only difference is that the name of the parent chain ends in -yne rather than -ene.
Naming binary molecules (only non metals)
oThe naming of N2O is explained in the following rules. 1. The first element in the formula is always named first, using the entire element name. N is the symbol for nitrogen. 2. The second element in the formula is named using its root and adding the suffix -ide. O is the symbol for oxygen so the second word is oxide. 3. Prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of each element that are present in the compound. There are two atoms of nitrogen and one atom of oxygen, so the first word is dinitrogen and second word is monoxide.
Steps of the Scientific Method
observation, hypothesis, experiment, conclusion theory, hypothesis, experiment, scientific law.
Cyclic --
occurring in cycles; regularly repeated 1. Saturated 2. Unsaturated
An endothermic reaction
occurs when a greater amount of energy is required to break the existing bonds in the reactants than is released when the new bonds form in the products.
An exothermic reaction
occurs when more energy is released during product bond formation than is required to break bonds in the reactants.
The standard enthalpy (heat)
of the formation of one mole of the compound in its standard state from its elements in their standard states.
When energy is added or removed from a system
one phase can change into another.
*A multiple covalent bond consists of
one sigma bond and at least one pi bond.
Dipole dipole is strong because of
oppositely charged regions aligning
Brownian motion
or pedesis (greek word meaning leaping) the chaotic movement of colloidal particles, caused by collision with particles of the solvent in which they are dispersed. is the random movement of liquid colloid particles.
Amino acids
organic compounds that contain a carboxyl group and amino group
How are sigma bonds formed?
overlapping of atomic orbitals
An acid that contains both a hydrogen atom and an oxyanion is referred to as an
oxyacid Recall that an oxyanion is a polyatomic ion containing one or more oxygen atoms.
Ozone hole
ozone layer thinning over Antarctica, as a result of the reaction between ozone and chlorofluorocarbons.
pOH
pOH = -log [OH-] The pOH of a solution equals the negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration [OH-]=10-ph
Capillary action explains how
paper towels can absorb large amounts of water as water is drawn into narrow spaces between the cellulose fibers in paper towels by capillary action in a edition water molecules form hydrogen bonds with the cellulose molecules.
Kinetic Molecular Theory of liquid
particles do not have fixed positions forced of attractions limit their range of motion so that particles remain closely packed in a fixed position particles partially overcome the attractive forces between them particles can move about but remain close to each other incompressible stronger intermolecular attractive forced = higher viscosity
The processes used to separate mixtures are
physical processes that are based on the differences in the physical properties of the substances.
electronegative difference 0.4-1.7
polar covalent
Difference between polar and non polar
polar- 2 nonmetal atoms that have different electronegativities and therefore have unequal sharing of the bonding electron pair are attracted by electric field nonpolar- 2 nonmetal atoms that have the same electronegativity and therefore have equal sharing of the bonding electron pair are not attracted by electric field
How to tell if it is polar non polar
polar: has hydrogen attached to N, O F presence of alcohol (OH) CH3NH2 (NH) non identical S-C-O Non polar one element (chlorine, sodium, etc) (diatomic of monatomic) Molecule contains carbon (ethane, methane) CH4, C2H6 All sides are symmetrical (4 sides are identical and filled)
KCL
potassium chloride will dissociate entirely, so it is a strong electrolyte.
The de Broglie equation
predicts that all moving particles have wave characteristics.
The first one is the
principal quantum number (n) and indicates the relative size and energy of atomic orbitals.
Table salt and table sugar look the same however the differ in
properties (sugar melts salt does not)
C3H4
propyle
Biological Organic compounds contain
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Physical properties usually describe
pure substances.
A solid
s a form of matter that has its own definite shape and volume.
Functional group
s an atom or group of atoms that always reacts in a certain way. The addition of a functional group to a hydrocarbon structure always produces a substance with physical and chemical properties that differ from those of the parent hydrocarbon.
Pascal
s international unit for pressure and one pascal is equal to a force of one newton per square meter: 1 Pa equals 1 N/ m 2.
The addition of ---- completes the pathway
salt bridge
→
separates reactants from products
→ ←
separates reactants from products and indicates a reversible reaction
Aufbau Principle
states that each electron occupies the lowest energy orbital available.
Avogadro's principle
states that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of particles.
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle
states that it is fundamentally impossible to know precisely both the velocity and position of a particle at the same time.
The law of conservation of mass
states that mass is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction. ( mass of reactants = mass of products )
Hund's rule
states that single electrons with the same spin must occupy each equal-energy orbital before additional electrons with opposite spins can occupy the same orbitals.
DNA, RNA are two molecules that
store information in the cell.
Some solutes, such as ---- are molecular compounds that exist as molecules in aqueous solutions.
sucrose and ethanol
In general, the stronger the attractions between particles, the greater the
surface tension.
Compounds that lower the surface tension of water are called
surface-active agents or surfactants.
To find the period
take the last principal energy level (N)
Viscosity is affected by
temp, size, and shape
The atmosphere is comprised of layers based on
temperature
Whether ionic solids are polyatomic or monatomic they still
tend to be strong electrolytes
Left side elements
tend to gain electrons, so they form negative ions.
Right side elements
tend to lose electrons, so they form positive ions.
Capillary action
tendency of water to rise in a thin tube
The logarithmic nature of the pH scale means
that a change of one pH unit represents a tenfold change in ion concentration.
The density of a liquid is much greater than
that of its vapor at the same conditions.
When the atom is in an excited state,
the electron can drop from the higher-energy orbit to a lower- energy orbit. As a result of this transition, the atom emits a photon corresponding to the energy difference between the two levels.
As the charge on the cation increases,
the electrostatic attraction of the cation for the outer electrons of the anions also increases. Due to this, the ability for forming covalent bond increases.
amorphous solids
the particles are not arranged in a regular pattern amorphous comes from greek word meaning no shape
Percent composition
the percent by mass of each element in a compound.
The energy level of an element's valence electrons indicates
the period on the periodic table in which it is found.
In the case of all strong acids, water is --- This will cause the Acid to ---
the stronger base. This will cause the Acid to Donate all of its Hydrogen ions and vise versa for weak acids.
Mass number
the sum of the atomic number (or number of protons) and neutrons in the nucleus.
A single bond represents
two electrons
liquid to gas
vaporization
Dipole-Dipole forces
when the positive pole is attracted to the negative pole of the polar molecule
Equivalence point
which is the point at which moles of H+ ion from the acid equal moles of OH ion from the base.
Homogeneous equilibrium
which means that all the reactants and products are in the same physical state.
phase diagram of water what is y axis and what is x axis
y axis is pressure (atm) and x axis is temp C
Polyatomic Anions
Anions in this group containing oxygen are referred to as oxyanions and are all named with an -ate or -ite ending.
Barite
BaSO4 (silicate)
Beryl
Be3Al2Si6O18
Examples of Aromatic Compounds
Benzene, Naphthalene, Anthracene
Colloid vs suspension
Both are large in size, and can be separated by filtration. Colloids: Scatter light (Tyndall effect) Suspensions: May either scatter light or be opaque
THE GAS LAWS
Boyle's law Charles's law Gay-Lussac's law The combined gas law The ideal gas law Molar mass and ideal gas law Density and ideal gas law
Acetate
C2H3O2-
Argonite
CaCO3 (carbonate)
Least electronegative elements are
Cesium (0.79) Francium (0.70)
Acid-base indicators:
Chemical dyes whose colors are affected by acidic and basic solutions such as Phenolphthalein o Not all indicators are dyes some could be like the litmus paper. o Another strip is used to measure the pH of the solution called the pH paper: When a strip of pH paper is dipped into an acidic solution or a basic solution, the color of the paper changes. To determine the pH, the new color of the paper is compared with standard pH colors on a chart,
What is a way of naming compounds?
Chemical nomenclature
To balance an equation, you must find the correct --- for the chemical formulas
Coefficients
Cu*2+ + 2e*- ----->
Cu
Alphatic hydrocarbon have 2
Cyclic and Open Chain
What makes communication of information possible for elements?
Each element has a unique chemical name and symbol to make the communication of information possible.
Lipids
Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. are biological organic non polar that makeup most of structure of cell membranes.
who discovered the proton?
Ernest Rutherford (he concluded that atom consisted of mostly empty space through which electrons move and that all of the atom's positive charge were in the nucleus)
Ester
Ester group
CH3CHO
Ethanal(Acetaldehyde)
CH3CH2
Ethyl
Examples of non polar covalent
Examples: O2, N2, H2
Saturated
Fats with the maximum number of hydrogens. Cyclic Alkane
Iron reacts with oxygen according to the following formula: 4Fe + 3O2 -> 2Fe2O3 How many moles of Fe is required to react with 12 mol O2?
Fe Mols= Fe Coefficient/ O2 Coefficient x O2 = 4mol Fe/ 3mol O2 x 12mol O2 = 16mol Fe
Phase Changes That Release Energy:
Freezing, Condensation, and Deposition.
Democritus
Greek philosopher, believed matter was made up of tiny individual particles called atoms.
Aristotle
Greek philosopher, rejected the notion of atoms.
Charge of 1+
Group 1 H, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs
Alkali Metals
Group 1, very reactive, soft, silver, shiny, low density; usually exist in compounds with other elements Lithium(batteries), Sodium (salt), Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium, Francium
Charge of 3-
Group 15 N, P, As
Charge of 2-
Group 16 0, S, Se, Te
Sulfuric
H2SO4 (Strong Acid) ---> H+ + HSO4-
Sulfuric acid
H2SO4 is named Sulfuric acid because the anion SO4 -2 is named Sulfate
What did Einstein propose?
He proposed that that all electromagnetic waves are quantized. light has a dual nature, a beam of light had wavelike and particle like properties. energy of a photon must have a threshold value to cause ejection of a photoelectron from a surface of the metal. even small numbers of photons with energy above the threshold value will cause photoelectric effect
ΔHrxn=
Hfinal-Hinitial
mercury(I)
Hg22+
solution vs suspension
In a solution, the solute particles that are in the solvent are evenly mixed and so small that you can't see them. In a suspension, the pieces of solute are large and can be seen floating throughout the solvent. solution= homogeneous suspension= heterogeneous
Ions of the same element have different charges
Iron II Fe2+ Iron III Fe3+ Cupper I Cu+1 Cupper II Cu+2 Manganese II Mn+2 Manganese III Mn+3
Ion product constant for water:
Kw = [H+][OH-] = 1.0 x 10^-14 o The value of the equilibrium constant expression for the self-ionization of water.o Pure water at 298 K, [H+] and [OH-] are both equal to 1.0 × 10-7M. Therefore, at 298 K, the value of Kw is 1.0 × 10-14. o Kw = [H+][OH-] = (1.0 × 10-7)(1.0 × 10-7) o Kw=1.0×10-14
Famous Scientific laws:
Law of conservation of mass. Law of conservation of energy. Law of conservation of momentum. Law of gravity. Newton's first, second law Newton's law of universal gravitation.
---- they can represent the arrangement of electrons in a molecule.
Lewis structure
Formula unit of Magnesium chloride is The total charge is--
MgCl2 because the magnesium chloride exist in a 1:2 ratio total charge is is 0 because it contains one Mg2+ and two Cl- (MgCl2) giving a total of 0
Magnesium oxide
MgO
When the ionic compound sodium hydroxide (NaOH) dissolves in water:
NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Dissociation Equations for Strong Bases: NaOH(s) → KOH(s) → RbOH(s) → CsOH(s) → Ca(OH)2(s) → Ba(OH)2(s) →
NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) KOH(s) → K+(aq) + OH-(aq) RbOH(s) → Rb+(aq) + OH-(aq) CsOH(s) → Cs+(aq) + OH-(aq) Ca(OH)2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Ba(OH)2(s) → Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Is Neon atomic spectrum continuous?
Neon atomic spectrum is not continuous like the visible light spectrum of white light.
Units of electronegativity
Paulings, named after Linus Pauling
Sublevels
S, P D, F
sulfite
SO3 2-
Scientific theory vs Scientific Law
Scientific laws describe phenomena that the scientific community has found to be provably true. Generally, laws describe what will happen in a given situation as demonstrable by a mathematical equation, whereas theories describe how the phenomenon happens.
Types of replacement reactions
Single substitution Double substitution
who lent in the accidental discovery of television?
Sir William Crookes
Baking soda
Sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3
Octet rule
States that atoms lose, gain or share electrons in order to acquire a full set of eight valence electrons
Bond- dissociation energy
The amount of energy required to break a specific covalent and it is always a positive value.
There are exceptions to using the prefixes.
The first element in the compound name never uses the mono- prefix. For example, CO is carbon monoxide, not monocarbon monoxide. Also, if using a prefix results in two consecutive vowels, one of the vowels is usually dropped to avoid an awkward pronunciation. For example, notice that the oxygen atom in CO is called monoxide, not monooxide.
What has greater lattice energy?
The ionic bond formed from the attraction of ions with larger positive or negative charges generally has a greater lattice energy.
When an ionic solid dissolves in water or melts to become liquid
The ions dissociate from one another. Ions that were locked together are now free to move and can conduct electricity. It becomes an electrolyte.
mol
The mole, abbreviated mol, is the SI base unit used to measure the amount of a substance.
Atomic number
The number of protons in an atom.
Hydrocarbons
The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons, which contain only the elements carbon and hydrogen.
Who conducted experiments to measure the rates of effusion?
Thomas Graham. He discovered an inverse relationship between effusion rates and molar mass.
Examples of Geometric Isomer:
Trans-2-butene, cis-2-butene
radioactive decay.
Unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation in a spontaneous process called radioactive decay.
How do you form ionic compounds in question?
Use the cirrscross method 1. Write the symbol and charge of the cation (metal) first and the anion (nonmetal) second. 2. Transpose only the number of the positive charge to become the subscript of the anion and the number only of the negative charge to become the subscript of the cation. 3. Reduce to the lowest ratio. 4. Write the final formula. Leave out all subscripts that are 1.
Single substitution
When a reaction involves an element which displaces another in a compound. The name "displacement reaction" is also used. A reaction in which the atoms of one element replace the atoms of another less reactive element in a compound. ex: Cu+2AgNO3 = Cu(NO3)2+2Ag
Zn ----->
Zn*2+ + 2e*-
Ka=
[Product]/[Reactants]
Keq=
[products]/[reactants]
Brønsted-Lowry model In this Case the water acts like a Brønsted-Lowry acid as it donates ---
a Hydrogen ion
Bonding of Hydrogen atom to an atom with high electronegativity (works as
a bridge between two molecules) ex. (HF-NH3-H2O)
Glucose is
a carbohydrate with an aldehyde structure when it is open-chain and also has a cyclic ether structure.
The arrangement in which an oxygen atom is double-bonded to a carbon atom is called
a carbonyl group. This group is the functional group in organic compounds known as aldehydes and ketones.
As with the pH scale,
a change of one pOH unit expresses a tenfold change in ion concentration.
combustion reaction
a chemical reaction that occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen, releasing energy in the form of heat and light. ex: C+O2 = CO2
A wax is a lipid that is formed by combining
a fatty acid with a long-chain alcohol.
A phase diagram is
a graph of pressure versus temperature that shows in which phase a substance exists under different conditions of temperature and pressure.
Phase diagram
a graph showing the conditions at which a substance exists as a solid, liquid, or vapor
Saturated Hydrocarbons
a hydrocarbon having only single bonds.
Weight
a measure not only of the amount of matter but also of the effect of Earth's gravitational pull on that matter.
Mass
a measurement that reflects the amount of matter.
The Brønsted-Lowry Model
a model of acids and bases in which an acid is a hydrogen-ion donor and a base is a hydrogen-ion acceptor An acid is a hydrogen-ion donor. A base is a hydrogen-ion acceptor.
Monatomic ion
a one-atom ion, such as Mg2+ or Br-
Intensive properties
a physical property that remains the same no matter how much of a substance is present. are independent on the amount present on the substance like density.
Oxyanion
a polyatomic ion composed of an element, usually a nonmetal, bonded to one or more oxygen atoms
If Qsp > Ksp
a precipitate will form, reducing the concentrations of the ions in the solution until the product of their concentrations in the Ksp expression equals the numerical value of Ksp. Then the system is in equilibrium, and the solution is saturated.
If the cylinder is extremely narrow,
a thin film of water will be drawn upward. This movement of a liquid such as water is called capillary action, or capillarity.
A pure research
a type of scientific investigation that seeks to gain knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself is to gain knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself.
Ionic radii
a) Positive ions are smaller than the neutral atoms from which they form. b) Negative ions are larger than the neutral atoms from which they form.
The relative amounts of the two ions determine whether an aqueous solution is
acidic, basic, or neutral.
Alcohols are named by
adding -ol to the end of the name of the corresponding Alkane and if it is branched then number the chain from the side that gives the Hydroxyl group the lowest.
Fractional distillation
also called fractionation, which involves boiling the petroleum and collecting components or fractions as they condense at different temperatures.
Changes in temperature:
alters both the equilibrium position and the equilibrium constant. o Every chemical reaction is either Endothermic or Exothermic o If a chemical reaction has a negative ΔH°, which means that the forward reaction is exothermic and the reverse reaction is endothermic. o In an exothermic reaction raising the temperature shifts the equilibrium to the left. o Lowering the temperature results in a shift to the right, The opposite is true for the endothermic reaction.
Amide
amide group
O-H bonds in water in water are more polar than N-H bonds in ammonia because
ammonia is gas at room temp which indicated that at the attractive forces are not strong.
The name for (NH4)2 is
ammonium sulfide.
The natural atom has
an equal number of protons and electrons.
Word equations
an equation in which the reactants and products in a chemical reaction are represented by words or statements ex: aluminium (s) + bromine (I) → aluminium bromide
Aldehyde
an organic compound in which a carbonyl group located at the end of a carbon chain is bonded to a carbon atom on one side and a hydrogen atom on the other.
Ketone
an organic compound in which the carbon of the carbonyl group is bonded to two other carbon atoms.
Carboxylic acid:
an organic compound that has a carboxyl group.
Scientific method
an organized process used by scientists to do research, and it provides a method for scientists to verify the work of others.
Halocarbon
any member of a class of organic compounds containing covalently bonded fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine Functional group: Halogen General formula: R-X (X= F, Cl, Br, I)
Matter
anything that has mass and takes up space.
Alkanes
are hydrocarbons that have only single bonds between atoms.
Sigma bonds
are strong bond and can form when an s orbital overlaps with another s orbital or a p orbital, or two p orbitals overlap end-to-end.
Isomers
are two or more compounds that have the same molecular formula but different molecular structures.
arm=
atmospheric pressure
types of crystalline solids
atomic, molecular, covalent network, ionic, metallic
A thermochemical equation is a
balanced chemical equation that includes the physical states of all reactants and products and the energy change, usually expressed as the change in enthalpy, ΔH.
Why is the overall charge of a formula unit zero?
because the formula unit represents the entire crystal which is electrically neutral. And also since an ionic compound consists of equal number of positive and negative ions, the overall charge of an ionic compound is zero.J
Why don't double gasses have electronegativity values?
because they form very few compounds.
Physical chemistry
behavior and changes of matter and the related energy changesEx. Reaction rates
Acidic solutions have pH values
below 7.
gas can liquify if point is
below the critical point if above it'll be supercritical fluid not liquid
Water molecule has a --- shape
bent shape (which makes it polar)
The hydrogen bonds in water molecules are stronger than the typical dipole-dipole attractions because the bond
between hydrogen and oxygen is highly polar
For Example: Mg(OH)2(s) ⇌ Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) ksp=
((Mg*2+)(OH-2))
CH3CH2 CH2C(CH3)2 CH3
(2, 2) dimythylepentane
Acid ionization constant
(Ka) is the value of the equilibrium constant expression for the ionization of a weak acid.
Electronegativity generally --- as you move from left to right in a period and generally ---- as you move down a group.
(Left to right) increases (up to down) decreases
Ion product
(Qsp) It is a trial value that can be compared with Ksp.
Monotomic anions
(accept electrons) end with ide H-= hydride Cl- = chloride Br- = bromide I- = iodide S2- = sulfide P3- = phosphide
Atomic radius of nonmetals
(determine from a molecule of two identical atoms) half the distance between nuclei of identical atoms that are chemically bonded together.
Paschen series
(infrared), in which electrons drop into the n = 3 orbit.
Principal quantum number
(n) indicates the relative size and energy of atomic orbitals.
Wavelength
(represented by λ, the Greek letter lambda) the shortest distance between equivalent points on a continuous wave.
Lyman series
(ultraviolet) electron transitions have been measured that are not visible in which electrons drop into the n = 1 orbit,
Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation number of hydrogen in most compounds is
+1 , except metal hybrides, then the oxidation number is -1
molecular crystalline solids
- Force: IMFs, H bonding, dipole attraction, dispersion forces - Examples: H2O, I2, NH3, NaCl, C12H22011 Hal, He - high melting points - fairly soft - poor conductivity
covalent network crystals
- carbon forms 3 types of covalent network crystals: graphite, diamond, buckminsterfullerene. (an element such as carbon that exists in many different forms at the same state - liquid, solid, gas- is called allotrope) - fairy soft -very high melting points - poor conductor - diamond (C), and quartz (SiO3)
Dalton's atomic theory
---Matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms. ---Atoms are indivisible and indestructible. --- Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and chemical properties. --- Atoms of a specific element are different from those of another element. --- Different atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds. --- In a chemical reaction, atoms are separated, combined or rearranged. (Law of Conservation of Mass)
Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation number of the most electronegative elements, fluorine's always
-1 when bonded with another element. Ex: F in LiF= -1
prefixes in covalent compounds Number of atoms 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 mono- 2 di- 3 tri- 4 tetra- 5 penta- 6 hexa- 7 hepta- 8 octa- 9 nona- 10 deca-
(double bond) 2 lines=
1 sigma + 1pi
(triple bond) 3 lines=
1 sigma + 2pi
n ranges from
1 to 7.
The s sublevel has just -- orbital, so can contain--electrons max. The p sublevel has -- orbitals, so can contain -- electrons max. The d sublevel has -- orbitals, so can contain -- electrons max.
1, 2 3, 6 5, 10
The speed of a reaction increases when
1- Concentration is increased 2- Surface area of reactants is increased 3- Temperature is increased 4- Presence of a catalyst
Molecular formulas:
1- Empirical formula 2- Molecular formula 3- Structural formula
effects of Hydrogen bond :
1- Higher the boiling point 2- increase the solubility of the molecule in polar solvents
Some properties of Hydrocarbons:
1- Hydrocarbons are non-polar and it does not dissolve in water 2- Alkanes have weak chemical activity because of the strength of C-C and C-H bonds. 3- Alkenes and Alkynes have strong chemical activity and Alkynes are more active than Alkenes 4- Because they are non-polar, they have low boiling and melting point5- As the molecular mass increases the boiling point increases.
Naming Cycloalkanes:
1- Substituted cycloalkanes are named by following the same IUPAC rules used for straight-chain alkanes. 2- With cycloalkanes, there is no need to find the longest chain because the ring is always considered to be the parent chain. Because a cyclic structure has no ends, numbering is started on the carbon that is bonded to the substituent group. 3- When there are two or more substituents, the carbons are numbered around the ring in a way that gives the lowest-possible set of numbers for the substituents. If only one group is attached to the ring, no number is necessary.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule:
1- The odd valency number of NO2 2- suboctets- stable configurations with fewer than eight electrons present around an atom. ex BH3 3- expanded octet- stable configurations with more than eight electrons present around an atom. ex PCl5 and SF6
Colligative properties include:
1- Vapor pressure lowering. 2- Boiling point elevation. 3- Freezing point depression. 4- Osmotic pressure.
Calculations Based on Chemical Formulas To perform any chemical calculation you'll need the following:
1. A balanced chemical equation. 2. The mole ratio. 3. Conversion factor (mole - mass) or (mass - mole)
Proteins have various functions in the body:
1. Accelerating chemical reactions (like enzymes) 2. Transportation of nutrients and regulation of cellular processes. 3. Communication between cells. 4. Structural support of the cells.
Rules for naming Alkyl and Aryl Halides
1. Choose the longest chain containing the Halogen to be the main chain for the name. 2. Number the chain or the ring in a way that gives lowest number for the halogens. 3. Substitute the prefix -ine with -o ( So Chlorine become Chloro)4. The atoms must be listed alphabetically in the name.
The following rules explain the naming of nitric acid (HNO3), an oxyacid.
1. First, identify the oxyanion present. The first word of an oxyacid's name consists of the root of the oxyanion and the prefix per- or hypo- if it is part of the oxyanion's name. The first word of the oxyacid's name also has a suffix that depends on the oxyanion's suffix. If the oxyanion's name ends with the suffix -ate, replace it with the suffix -ic. If the name of the oxyanion ends with the suffix -ite, replace it with the suffix -ous. NO3 -, the nitrate ion, becomes nitric. 2. The second word of the name is always acid. HNO3 (hydrogen and the nitrate ion) becomes nitric acid.
Steps for drawing lewis structure:
1. Predict the location of certain atoms. The atom that has the least attraction for shared electrons will be the central atom in the molecule. This element is usually the one closer to the left side of the periodic table. The central atom is located in the center of the molecule; all other atoms become terminal atoms. Hydrogen is always a terminal, or end, atom. Because it can share only one pair of electrons, hydrogen can be connected to only one other atom. 2. Determine the number of electrons available for bonding. This number is equal to the total number of valence electrons in the atoms that make up the molecule. 3. Determine the number of bonding pairs. To do this, divide the number of electrons available for bonding by two. 4. Place the bonding pairs. Place one bonding pair (single bond) between the central atom and each of the terminal atoms. 5. Determine the number of electron pairs remaining. To do this, subtract the number of pairs used in Step 4 from the total number of bonding pairs determined in Step 3. These remaining pairs include lone pairs as well as pairs used in double and triple bonds. Place lone pairs around each terminal atom (except H atoms) bonded to the central atom to satisfy the octet rule. Any remaining pairs will be assigned to the central atom. 6. Determine whether the central atom satisfies the octet rule. Is the central atom surrounded by four electron pairs? If not, it does not satisfy the octet rule. To satisfy the octet rule, convert one or two of the lone pairs on the terminal atoms into a double bond or a triple bond between the terminal atom and the central atom. These pairs are still associated with the terminal atom as well as with the central atom. Remember that carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur often form double and triple bonds.
Cal=
1000cal= Kcal.
liquid water is ---- times denser than water vapor at ---C
1250 times denser than water vapor at 25C and 1 atm of pressure
How many covalent bonds for group 17, 16, 15 14
17= 1 16= 2 15= 3 14= 4
Calculate the mass of 4 mols of water (H2O=18g)
18x4=72g
Electron Configuration
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, 8s.
CH3COCH2CH3
2-Butanone (methyl ethyl ketone)
Aldehydes sometimes have a common name like: ClCH2CHO
2-Chloroethanal
CH3COCH3
2-Propanone (acetone)
CH3CHClCHOHCH2CH2CH3 IUPAC name
2-chloro-3-hexanol
CH3CHOHCH2CH2CH3 IUPAC name
2-pentanol
Electrolysis of water
2H2O(l) -----Electrical Energy--> 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Spectator Ions example
2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)--->2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
Complete Ionic Equation example
2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + Cu+2(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) ---> 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)
Electrolysis of sea water
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) ----electrical energy--> Cl2(g) + H2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)
Chemical Equation ex
2NaOH(aq) + CuCl2(aq)---->2NaCl(aq) + Cu(OH)2(aq)
Net Ionic Equation example
2OH-(aq) + Cu+2(aq)--->Cu(OH)2(s)
CH3CHClCHBrCH2CH2CH2 IUPAC name
3-Bromo-2-Chlorohexane
Electronegativity values are expressed in terms of numerical value of
3.98 or less
The normal amount of ozone to protect earth is
300 DU (300 Dobson Units)
Electromagnetic waves move in space in speed of light (All electromagnetic waves, including visible light, travel at a speed of)
3x10^8 m/s.
The relationship between Joule and calorie
4.184 J = 1 cal
How many atoms of carbon are in 1mol of C6H12O6
6
mole
6.02214076 × 10*23 is a convenient unit to use because of the great number of atoms, molecules, or others in any substance.
Through years of experimentation, it has been established that a mole of anything contains ----- representative particles
6.02x10^23
Planck's constant has a value of
6.626 × 1 0*-34 J·s.
Formula for lattice energy
= c(z+)(z-)/r c= sontant z= charge of ions r=inter-ionic distance
Calorimeters
A calorimeter is an insulated device used for measuring the amount of heat absorbed or released during a chemical or physical process.
A physical property
A characteristic of a pure substance that can be observed without changing it into another substance. is a characteristic of matter that can be observed or measured without changing the composition of the sample.
Balanced chemical equation
A chemical equation is a statement that uses chemical formulas to show the identities and relative amounts of the substances involved in a chemical reaction
A variable
A factor that can change in an experiment. is a quantity or condition that has more than one value.
A colloid
A mixture containing small, undissolved particles that do not settle out. is a heterogeneous mixture that has particles of sizes between 1nm to 1000nm in diameter and do not settle out.
A solution
A mixture that forms when one substance dissolves another. is a homogeneous mixture consisting of a solute dissolved into a solvent .
Coefficient
A number in front of a chemical formula in an equation that indicates how many molecules or atoms of each reactant and product are involved in a reaction. Coefficients are usually whole numbers and are not usually written if the value is one.
Cracking
A process in which heavier fractions are converted to gasoline by breaking their large molecules into smaller molecules.
Distillation
A process that separates the substances in a solution based on their boiling points is a physical separation technique that is based on the differences in the boiling points in the substances involves.
Redox reactions
A reaction in which electrons are transferred from one substance to another.
Replacement reaction
A reaction in which one element replaces another in a compound or when two elements in different compounds trade places. it divide into single(aka simple) and double substitutions.
nuclear reaction.
A reaction that involves a change in an atom's nucleus is called a nuclear reaction.
Unsaturated
A solution that contains less than the maximum amount of dissolved solute in a concentration. 1. Cyclic Alkenes 2. Cyclic Alkynes
A conclusion
A summary based on evidence or facts. is a judgment based on the information obtained.
A suspension
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which solute-like particles settle out of a solvent-like phase some time after their introduction. is a mixture containing particles that settle out if left undisturbed.
Double substitution
AC + BD --> AD + BC involves an exchange of ions between two compounds. ex: NaOH+HCl = NaCl+H2O
Who discovered Photons?
Albert Einstein
Saturated in open chain
Alkanes C(n)H(2n+2)
Louis de Broglie
All moving objects have wave-like behavior. Matter shows properties of both wave and particles. Saw only odd number of wavelengths are allowed in a circular orbit . He also sat light's dual nature (particle and wave like) (in circular orbit divide total by 2 to get odd number)
Substituents group
All side branches are called Substituents group.
Alpha, Beta, Gamma Symbol Mass in AMU Mass in kg Charge
Alpha: 2He4 (mass number 2, atomic number 2)or α Beta: β Gamma: γ Mass amu 4 1/1840 0 Mass in kg 6.65x10*-27 9.11x10*-31 0 Charge 2+ 1- 0
Weak Acids
An acid that ionizes only partially in dilute aqueous solution
Ideal Gas (Kinetic Molecular Theory)
An ideal gas has the following 4 characteristics that are different from a real gas: 1) Gas molecules have zero volume. 2) Particles are at constant random motion. 3) Particles do not attract or repel- they exert no forces on each other. Therefore they can easily flow past each other. 4) Gas molecules make completely elastic collisions. 5) The average KE of gas molecules is directly proportional to the temperature of the gas.
Isotope
Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
how to know if a bond is ionic or covalent
By definition, an ionic bond is between a metal and a nonmetal, and a covalent bond is between 2 nonmetals.
Glucose
C6H12O6
Addition of water
CH2=CH2 + H2O —> CH2CH2OH ethene water ethanol
Halogenation RXN :
CH3CH3 + Cl2 —> CH3CH2Cl + HClethyne chlore chloroethane hydrogen chloride
Elimination of Hydrogen:
CH3CH3---> CH2=CH2 +H2 ethane --> ethane hydrogen
Methane
CH4
Applying Le Châtelier's Principle:
Changing the volume and pressure Changes in temperature Changes in concentration
Examples of colloid
Colloids are common in everyday life. Some examples include whipped cream, mayonnaise, milk, butter, gelatin, jelly, muddy water, plaster, colored glass, and paper. Every colloid consists of two parts: colloidal particles and the dispersing medium. fog, smoke, or a scattering of dust particles suspended in air.
What are some physical properties?
Color, texture, luster (the way light interacts with a surface), boiling point, freezing point, solubility, state of matter, mass, volume, density, and ability to conduct electricity.
Compounds vs Mixtures Components properties Components proportions Formation Components segregation
Components properties compounds: Its properties are different. Mixtures: Have the same properties Components proportions Compounds: Fixed Mixtures: May vary Formation Compounds: Chemical reaction Mixtures: Physical Means Components segregation Compounds: Chemical ways, such as electrolysis Mixtures: Physical ways, such as filtration
• Nucleic Acids:
DNA and RNA
The density of a liquid is higher than the density of a gas because
Density: The molecules of a liquid are packed relatively close together. Consequently, liquids are much denser than gases
Effusion
During effusion, a gas escapes through a tiny opening.
Formula for cell potential
E cell = E reduction - E oxidization E cell = overall standard cell potential E reduction= standard half cell potential for the reduction E oxidization= standard half cell potential for the oxidization
Balmer series
Electron transitions from higher-energy orbits to the second orbit account for all of hydrogen's visible lines (n=2)
--- can be used to show valence electrons of atoms.
Electron-dot diagram
Electrons are distributed ---- around the benzene ring which makes it ---
Electrons are distributed equally around the benzene ring which makes it exceptionally stable.
Metals
Elements that are generally shiny when smooth and clean, solid at room temperature, and good conductors of heat and electricity. Ex: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and transition metals.
CH3CH2NH2
Ethanamine or Ethylamine
CH3CH2OCH3
Ethyl methyl ether
Dissociation Equations for Weak Bases: Ethylamine Methylamine Ammonia Aniline Aniline
Ethylamine C2H5NH2(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ C2H5NH3 +(aq) + OH-(aq) Methylamine CH3NH2(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3NH3 +(aq) + OH-(aq) Ammonia NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4 +(aq) + OH-(aq) Aniline C6H5NH2(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ C6H5NH3 +(aq) + OH-(aq)
Who was the first to demonstrate that air exerted pressure?
Evangelista Torricelli he realized that the water pumps were unable to pump water higher than 10m he filled glass tube with one end of mercury he hypothesized the height of the column of water. While covering and end so that air could not enter he concluded that mercury is 14 times more dense than water
Steps after hypothesis
Experiments, conclusion
Physical properties are of two types
Extensive and intensive properties.
Fe 3+ and O2- ions form
F e 2 O 3, known as iron (III) oxide.
Numerical roman number Iron (III) chloride Iron (II) chloride Iron (II) oxide Iron (III) oxide
FeCl3 FeCl2 FeO Fe2O3 (refers to valence electrons)
Examples:Fe 2+ and O 2- ions form
FeO, known as iron (II) oxide.
What is the most electronegative element?
Fluorine (3.98)
Alcohol
General formula: R-OH functional group: hydroxyle
Charge of 1-
Group 17 F, Cl, Br, I
Halogens
Group 17 Like group 1 and 2 they are often part of compounds and are also highly reactive. Compounds made with the halogen fluorine (F) are commonly added to toothpaste and drinking water to prevent tooth decay Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine Astatine Ununseptium
Noble gases
Group 18 unreactive and are used in lasers, a variety of lightbulbs and neon signs.
Charge of 2+
Group 2 Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba
Representative Elements
Groups 1, 2, 13-18
Carbonic
H2CO3 (weak acid) ⇌ H+ +HCO3-
oxidizing reagent examples
H2O2 MnO4 CrO3 Cr2O7 OsO4
molar mass of water, methane, and ammonia
H2O= 18 g CH4= 16 g NH3= 17 g
Hydrosulfuric
H2S (weak acid) ⇌ H+ + HS-
HX (aq) +H2O(1) ⇌
H3O +(aq) + X- (aq) HX (aq) ---> Acid H2O(1) ---> base H3O +(aq) ---> Conjugate acid X- (aq) ---> Conjugate base
hydronium
H3O+
HF+H2O⇋
H3O+F-
Acetic
HC2H3O2 (weak acid)⇌ H+ + C 2H3O2-
Hydrochloric
HCl (Strong Acid) ---> H+ + Cl-
As an example of the Arrhenius model of acids and bases, consider what happens when hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water:
HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Strong acids
HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4 Acids that ionize completely when in an aqueous solution
Hypochlorous
HClO (weak acid) ⇌ H+ + CIO-
Perchloric
HClO4 (Strong Acid) ---> H+ CIO4-
Hydrofluoric
HF (weak acid) HF⇌ H+ + F-
Hydroiodic
HI (Strong Acid)----> H+ + I-
Nitrous acid
HNO2 is named Nitrous acid because the anion NO2 - is named nitrite
Nitric
HNO3 (Strong Acid) ---> H+ + NO3-
Exceptions of monatomic anions
HO- = hydroxide O22- = peroxide CN- = cyanide
Functional groups/ organic compounds
Halocarbon Alcohol Ether Amine Aldehyde Ketone carboxylic acid Ester Amide
All diatomic molecules (ALWAYS EXISTS AS 2 DOWN)
Have (hydrogen) No (Nitrogen) Fear (Fluorine) Of (Oxygen) Iced (Iodine) Cold (Chlorine) Beer (Bromine)
Name all the noble gases and their atomic number
Helium(He)= 2 Neon (Ne)= 10 Aragon (Aragon)= 18 Krypton (Kr) = 36 Xenon (Xe)= 54 Radon (Rn) = 86 Oganesson (Og)= 118
Difference between Homogenous and heterogeneous
Homogeneous mixtures cannot be separated, while heterogeneous mixtures can be separated.
Le Châtelier's principle
If a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system shifts in the direction that relieves the stress.
Photoelectrons
In the photoelectric effect, electrons, called photoelectrons, are emitted from a metal's surface when light of a certain frequency, or higher than a certain frequency, shines on the surface.
The more negative the lattice energy is the --- beacause
Inn a crystal lattice, each positive ion is surrounded by "negative" ions. The more "negative" the lattice energy is, the stronger is the force of attraction between the ions of an ionic compound.
Ether
It is an organic compound containing an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon atoms.
Ionic Bond
It is the electrostatic force that holds oppositely charged particles together in an ionic compound.
who discovered the electron?
JJ thomson
who discovered the neutron?
James Chadwick
Base ionization constant
Kb is the value of the equilibrium constant expression for the ionization of a base. It Has the Same Formula that of the Acid ionization Constant
What is the Chemical Equilibrium For C2H6<--- --->C2H4 + H2
Keq = ([C]c.[D]d)/([A]a[B]b) Keq = ([C2H4].[H2])/([C2H6])
Equilibrium constant
Keq, is the numerical value of the ratio of product concentrations to reactant concentrations, with each concentration raised to the power equal to its coefficient in the balanced equation.
What are stable energy systems in electrons in an atom?
Low-energy systems are more stable than high-energy systems, electrons in an atom tend to assume the arrangement that gives the atom the lowest energy possible.
Who discovered the kinetic molecular theory
Ludwig Boltzmann and James Maxwell
Density and ideal gas law
M=DRT/P
Mass is--- while weight
Mass is constant while weight differs due to the acceleration and height.
Molar mass and ideal gas law:
Mass per unit volume (ρ, g/L), and 22.4L/mol at STP. ρ * 22.4mol/L = g/mol PV=mRT/M
How many grams is needed to react with 24 mol Fe? (O = 16 g/mol)
Mass= mols of O2 x Molar mass = 32g O2/ 4mol O2 x 18 mole O2 = 576g O2
In ionic compounds melting and boiling points are --- because ---.
Melting point and boiling point are very high in ionic compounds because it's a very strong bond.
Phase Changes That Require Energy:
Melting, Vaporization, and Sublimation.
HCHO
Methanal(formaldehyde)
Some of the carboxylic acids have common names like:
Methanoic acid (Formic acid): HCOOH Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid): CH3COOH 2-chloroethanoicacid: ClCH3COOH
Example: CH3
Methyl
White light
Mixture of all the colors in the visible spectrum
Molarity
Moles of solute liter of solution
Diffusion
Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. is the mixing of gases or liquids resulting from their random motions.
Hydrazine
N2H4
Ammonia
NH3
ammonium
NH4+
Nitric oxide
NO
Sodium chloride
NaCl (table salt)
Salt
NaCl sodium chloride
Electrolytes such as
NaCl, MgCl2 and AlCl3 affect the colligative properties of a solution more than none- lectrolytes such as C6H12O6 and H2O.
Arrange the following in the order given below : Increasing covalent character of NaCl,MgCl2,AlCl3 is AlCl3<MgCl2<NaCl.
NaCl,MgCl2,AlCl3 is NaCl<MgCl2<AlCl3.
Famous theories:
Newton's Laws of Motion. Laws of Thermodynamics. Archimedes' Buoyancy Principle. Evolution and Natural Selection.
Amines
Organic compounds that Contain nitrogen atoms bonded to carbon atoms in aliphatic chains or aromatic rings.
Aromatic Compounds
Organic compounds that contain benzene rings as part of their structures.
HClO3 Oxyanion and acidic name
Oxyanion Chlorate acidic name (sudden -ic) Chloric acid
HClO2
Oxyanion Chlorite acidic name (sudden -ous) Chlorous acid
HNO3
Oxyanion Nitrate acidic name (sudden -ic) Nitric acid
HNO2
Oxyanion Nitrite acidic name (sudden -ous) Nitrous acid
Diffusion
Particles diffuse from an area of high concentration to one of low concentration.
Symmetric covalent molecules like--- are --- and dissolve in
Petroleum (CnH2n) and oil (C8H18) are non polar and dissolve in non polar substances
Polar gases do not obey --- because
Polar gases do not obey ideal gas behavior because of their great intermolecular attraction forces.
Find the formula for the ionic compound from potassium and oxygen.
Potassium and oxygen= K20 = 2(1+) + 1(2-) = 0
Keq > 1:
Products are favored at equilibrium.
Electron sea model
Proposes that all metal atoms in a metallic solid contribute their valence electrons to form a "sea" of electrons, and can explain properties of metallic solids such as malleability, conduction, and ductility.
CH3CH2CH2
Propyl
Difference between quantitive and qualitative data.
Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.
Ketone
R-C-R || O Carbonyl
Amine
R-NH2 functional group: Amino
Ether
R-O-R functional group: Ether
RNA vs DNA
RNA 1. Consists of one strand 2. Contains ribose sugar 3. Contain adenine (A), Contain adenine (A),uracil (U), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). DNA 1. Consist of two strands 2. Contain deoxyribose sugar 3. Contain thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G).
To compare between the diffusion of two gases
Rate A/Rate B = the square root of the molar mass of B over the molar mass of A.
Keq < 1
Reactants are favored at equilibrium.
4. Oxidation Reduction
Reactions: Oxidation of premier Alcohol: oxidation oxidation oxidationCH3OH —> HCHO —> HCOOH —> CO2 methanol methanal formic acid carbon dioxide Oxidation of secondary Alcohol : oxidationCH3CHOHCH3 —> CH3COCH3 2-propanol 2-propanone
Who discovered the charge and mass of an electron?
Robert Millikan using oil-drop experiment
Orbitals
S(1) P(3) D(5) F(7)
# of electrons
S(2) P(6) D(10) F(14)
What is δ used for?
The Greek letter delta (δ) is used to represent a partial charge. In a polar covalent bond, δ - represents a partial negative charge and δ + represents a partial positive charge. δ - and δ + can be added to a molecular model to indicate the polarity of the covalent bond. The more-electronegative atom is at the partially negative end, while the less-electronegative atom is at the partially positive end. The resulting polar bond often is referred to as a dipole (two poles). o Examples: H20, NH3, HF
electron configuration.
The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called the atom's electron configuration.
wave mechanical model or quantum mechanical mode
The atomic model in which electrons are treated as waves
Oxidation number
The charge of a monatomic ion, which is a one-atom ion, such as Mg2+.
formula unit
The chemical formula for an ionic compound, called a formula unit, represents the simplest ratio of the ions involved.
Bond length
The distance between the two bonded nuclei at the position of maximum attraction. oThe shorter the bond length, the stronger the bond. o As the number of shared electron pairs increases, the bond length decreases.
Products
The elements or compounds produced by a chemical reaction.
Chemical potential energy
The energy that is stored in a substance because of its composition is called chemical potential energy.
Independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. is the plan you plan to change during the experiment.
activation energy ( Ea ).
The minimum amount of energy that reacting particles must have to form the activated complex and lead to a reaction is called the activation energy ( Ea ).
Dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. is the variable that changes in response to a change in the independent variable.
End point
The point at which the indicator used in a titration changes color.
Stratosphere
The protective ozone layer is located in, the second layer, stratosphere (absorbs UV radiation)
The sign --- in an endothermic process is --- because --
The sign of q for an endothermic process is positive because the system is gaining heat.
The sign --- in an exothermic process is --- because --
The sign of q for an exothermic process is negative because the system is losing heat.
crystal lattice
The strong attractions among the positive ions and the negative ions in an ionic compound result in the formation of a crystal lattice which is a three-dimensional geometric arrangement of particles.
Oxidizing reagent
The substance that oxidizes another substance by accepting its electrons
Reducing reagent
The substance that reduces another substance by losing electrons
Heat
The symbol q is used to represent heat, which is energy that is in the process of flowing from a warmer object to a cooler object.
oxidation-number method
The technique that can be used to balance more difficult redox reactions, based on the fact that the number of electrons transferred from atoms must equal the number of electrons accepted by other atoms. The balancing technique that states that the total increase in oxidation numbers (oxidation) must equal the total decrease in oxidation numbers (reduction) of the atoms or ions involved in the reaction.
atomic orbital
The wave function predicts a three-dimensional region around the nucleus, called an atomic orbital.
Alkenes names are formed
Their names are formed by changing the -ane ending of the corresponding alkane to -ene.
N2
Triple covalent (stronger than n2 and o2)
2 Al(s) + 3Br2(g)
Two aluminum atoms and 6 bromine atoms are needed → 2AlBr3(s)
Ozone layer protects earth from harmful rays such as
Ultra Violet Rays.
Alkenes
Unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain one or more double covalent bonds between carbon atoms in a chain
Alkynes
Unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain one or more triple bonds between carbon atoms in a chain.
Heterogeneous equilibrium
When the reactants and products are present in more than one physical state.
The lewis model
a Lewis acid is an electron-pair acceptor and a Lewis base is an electron-pair donor Note that the Lewis model includes all substances classified as Bronsted lowery acids and bases and many more
skeleton equation
a chemical equation that does not indicate the relative amounts of reactants and products ex: Aluminium bromide Al(s) + Br2→ AlBr3(s) or Carbon disulfide (carbon and sulfur are metals at room temp) C(s) + S(s) → CS2(I) Tells us that carbon ran the solid state reacts with sulfur in the solid state to produce carbon disulfide in a liquid state.
Scientific Law
a concise statement that summarizes the results of many observations and experiments Summary of accepted facts of nature.
Quanta
a discrete quantity of energy proportional in magnitude to the frequency of the radiation it represents. specific amount of energy matter can gain or lose.
Hybridization
a process in which atomic orbitals are mixed to form new, identical hybrid orbitals
Dissociation
a process in which the dissolved ionic compounds in water separate to ions.
Compound
a pure substance made up of two or more different elements that are combined chemically.
Element
a pure substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by physical or chemical means.
The ions are packed into
a regular repeating pattern that balences the forces of attraction and repulsion between ions.
Substitutional alloys
a second element takes the place of a metal atom. Examples, sterling silver copper replace silver atoms
Crystallization
a separation technique that results in the formation of pure solid particles of a substance from a solution containing the dissolved substance. is a separation technique that results in the formation of pure solid particles of a substance from a solution containing the dissolved substance.
Principal energy level 1 consists of -- sublevel, principal energy level 2 consists of --, and principal energy level 3 consists of --, and so on.
a single two sublevels three sublevels
A line or a pair of vertical dots between the symbols of elements represents
a single covalent bond in a Lewis structure. For example, a hydrogen molecule is written as H—H or H:H.
Catalysts
a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed in the reaction.
Inhibitor
a substance that slows down reaction rates, or inhibits reactions. Some inhibitors prevent a reaction from happening at all.
Electrolytes
a substance that when dissolved in water will dissociate into positively charged and negatively charged ions, which have the ability to conduct electricity in solution.
Model
a visual, verbal, or mathematical explanation of experimental data.
In H20 pressure of 1 atm is --- the triple point
above (as you increase temp solid will become liquid, and then turn to gas)
Basic solutions have pH values
above 7.
During a chemical reaction energy is either
absorbed or released
CH3COOH
acetic acid a weak acid, will only partially dissociate, so it is a weak electrolyte. (covalent electrolyte, because molecule the molecule contains strictly covalent bonds, and unlike ionic solids that allow their inter-ionic attractions to dissipate in favor of solvation, these covalent species undergo an actual chemical reaction with the solvent molecules in solution to form charged products).
Lewis
acid: electron pair acceptor base: electron pair donor
Gamma rays are usually accompanied by
alpha, or beta radiation
Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation number of oxygen in compounds is
always -2 except in peroxides, such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) where it is -1. When it is bonded to fluorine, the only element more electronegative than oxygen, is positive. Ex: O in NO2 = -2 O in H202= -1
Acids
anything with hydrogen
NucleicAcids
are biological polymers made from nucleotides that consist of a nitrogen base, a phosphate group and a monosaccharide sugar group.
Nonmetals
are elements that are generally gases or brittle, dull-looking solids. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Ex: halogens, and noble gases.
Net Ionic Equation
are ionic equations that include only the particles that participate in the reaction.
Chlorofluorocarbons
are nontoxic, nonflammable chemicals containing atoms of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. They are used in the manufacture of aerosol sprays, blowing agents for foams and packing materials, as solvents, and as refrigerants.
Colligative properties
are physical properties of solutions that are affected by the number of particles but not by the identity of dissolved solute particles are called.
Primary batteries
are used only once, and it is not rechargeable like Carbon-Zinc cells, dry cells, and silver-oxide battery, and some alkaline batteries.
Gases and liquids are classified as
as fluids, yet liquids usually diffuse more slowly than gases at the same temperature, because intermolecular attractions interfere with the flow. Thus, liquids are less fluid than gases.
Rutherford's nuclear model
atom is composed of a dense positively charged nucleus that is surrounded by negative electrons. Alpha particles passing far from the nucleus are only slightly deflected, but the ones directly approaching the nucleus are deflected in large angles.
All that we observe about matter depends on
atoms and the changes they undergo.
Isobars
atoms for different elements similar in mass number. have the same mass number—that is, the same total number of protons and neutrons but differ in atomic number (number of protons)
metallic crystalline solids
atoms surrounded by valence electrons soft to hard low to very high melting points malleable and ductile excellent conductor all metallic elements
the device Torricelli invented is called a
barometer
Strong base
base that dissociates entirely into metal ions and hydroxide ions
Fuel Cells
batteries that the oxidized substance is from an external source.
Many ionic bonds are
binary
Two common types of acids exist-
binary acids and oxides
Line between liquid and gas
boiling point curve
Borates
boron containing anions
Chemistry is traditionally broken down into
branches that focus on specific areas, such as Organic chemistry, Inorganic chemistry and Physical chemistry.
Polymerization by addition occurs by-- Examples like --
breaking the double bond in the monomers and keeping all the monomer atoms. ethylene polymers, and propene polymer.
Positive ions move through the ---- to the---
bridge to the copper side
Examples of metallic alloys
bronze, cast iron, gold 10 carat, stainless silver, brass, pewter, phosphor bronze, amalgam, and steel.
sigma and pie bonds any element that reacts with
carbon
Carbonates
carbon and oxygen containing anions
Changes in concentration
change concentration = no more equilibrium increase conc. of reactants = makes more products decrease conc. of products = less reactants etc Adjusting the concentrations of either the reactants or the products puts a stress on the equilibrium.
Ketones are formally named by
changing the -e at the end of the alkane name to -one, and including a number before the name to indicate the position of the ketone group.
Aldehydes are formally named by
changing the final -e of the name of the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms to the suffix -al. If the compound contain branches, number the chain beginning with the carbon of the carbonyl group then apply the rule above
C2H6⇋C2H4 + H2+ΔH° State the change, equilibrium, amount of C2H4, amount of H2, and equilibrium constant.
check file
ΔH°+2NO⇋N2+O2 State the change, equilibrium, amount of N2, amount of NO, and equilibrium constant.
check file
Compounds can be broken down into simpler substances by --- means.
chemical
Most accurate equation is
chemical equation
industrial chemisty
chemical process in industry Ex. Paints
Synthesis reaction
chemical reaction in which two or more substances (A and B) react to produce a single product (AB). ex: 2Al+3S = Al2S3 CaO+H2O = Ca(OH)2
Examples of isobar
chlorine-37 and argon-37
Water molecules are attracted to each other ---- and silicon dioxide molecules in the glass are ---
cohesive adhesive
Water molecules have --- and --- properties
cohesive and adhesive
Net ionic equations are written from
complete ionic equations by removing all the spectator ions.
Surfactants
compounds that lower the surface tension of water
Air can be ---- and ----
compressed and expanded
p-Block elements
comprised of groups 13 through 18, contains elements with filled or partially filled p orbitals.
The partial pressured of gases at the same temperature are related to their
concentration
gas to liquid
condensation
The reaction of amino acids to produce protein is considered
condensation reaction.
The modern periodic table
consists of boxes, each containing an element name, symbol, atomic number, and atomic mass. The boxes are arranged in order of increasing atomic number into a series of columns, called groups or families (1-18), and rows, called periods (1-7).
Neon's atomic emission spectrum:
consists of several individual lines of color corresponding to the frequencies of the radiation emitted by the atoms of neon.
A Conjugate acid-base pair
consists of two substances related to each other by the donating and accepting of a single hydrogen ion.
Halides
contain fluoride, chloride, bromide, and iodide ions.
f-Block elements
contains inner transition metals (Lanthanides and actinides) filled or partially filled s orbital and filled or partially filled 4f and 5f
Acidic solution
contains more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions.
A Basic solution
contains more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions.
Alpha particle
contains two protons and two neutrons and has a 2+ charge
Table sugar is a
covalent solid
The strong attractions among positive and negative ions in an ionic compound result in the formation of
crystal lattice
the locations of particles in a crystalline solid can be represented as points on a framework called
crystal lattice
Some solids are ---- solids others are --.
crystalline not
Types of unit cells
cubic 90 degrees tetragonal 90 degrees orthorhombic 90 degrees triclinic 90 degrees hexagonal 120 degrees rhombohedral 90 degrees monoclinic 90 degrees all but one side
Substituted benzene compounds are named in the same way as For example,
cyclic alkanes. ethylbenzene has a 2-carbon ethyl group attached, and 1,4-dimethylbenzene, also known as para- xylene, has two methyl groups attached at positions 1 and 4.
Cycloalkanes
cyclic hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds.
Biochemistry
deals with the prcess of living organisms. Ex. Metabolism
Soaps and detergents -- the surface tension of water by ---
decrease disrupting the hydrogen bonds between water molecules.
Atomic radii generally --- as you move from left to right in a period and generally ---- as you move down a group.
decrease (left to right) increase (up to down)
Ionic radii generally --- as you move from left to right in a period and generally ---- as you move down a group.
decrease (left to right) increase (up to down)
For example, the ratio of an object's mass and volume, which are two extensive properties, is
density, which is an intensive property. (density is qualitative)
Secondary batteries
depend on reversible redox reactions, and its rechargeable like Lead Storage batteries (car batteries), Lithium ion batteries (mobile and laptop batteries).
Extensive properties
dependent on the amount of substance/matter present are dependent on the amount present in the substance like mass.
Weakest energy
depends on which on goes first in the electron configuration, whichever goes first has less energy
gas to solid
deposition
Cohesion
describes the force of attraction between identical molecules.
Adhesion
describes the force of attraction between molecules that are different.
The ideal gas law
describes the physical behavior of an ideal gas in terms of the pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles of gas present. PV = nRT
CH3CH2OCH2CH3
diethyl ether
The molal boiling point elevation constant, Kb , is the
difference in boiling points between a 1m non- volatile, nonelectrolyte solution and a pure solvent.
The properties of a compound are -- from those of its component elements.
different
CH3OCH3
dimethyl ether
P2O5
diphosphorus pentoxide
Energy and frequency are -- proportional with one another.
directly
Lattice energy is --- related to the size of the ions bonded.
directly
For nonelectrolytes, the value of the freezing point depression is
directly proportional to the solution's molality.
Lattice energy is --- to the size of the ions bonded.
directly related
In HCL what is dominating? Dispersion of dipole-dipole forces?
dispersion
In its solid state, ionic solids ---- conduct electricity
do not
Polar and non polar substance ---- mix
do not
In gases, kinetic energy can be transferred between colliding particles, but the total kinetic energy between two particles
does not change
Hydrogen bonds typically --- dispersion and dipole-dipole forces
dominate
Hydrogen fluoride -- a ---to a water molecule, so hydrogen fluoride is --
donates hydrogen ion an acid.
O2
double covalent (stronger than o2 weaker than n2)
D orbitals are -- shaped, but they
double dumbbell lie in different planes.
Reactions that occur in aqueous solutions are
double replacement reactions.
All p orbitals are -- shaped and are oriented along the three ---
dumbbell perpendicular x, y, and z axes.
In a crystal lattice
each positive ion is surrounded by negative ions, and each negative ion is surrounded by positive ones.
Many of Greek philosopher believed that matter was composed of things such as
earth, water, air, and fire.
A neutral solution contains
equal concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.
Nuclear equation
equation that shows the atomic numbers and mass numbers of particles involved, mass number is conserved in nuclear equations.
Theoretical chemistry
evelops theoretical generalizations that are part of the theoretical arsenal of modern chemistry EX. chemical bonding
Reactants leftover when a reaction stops are
excess reactants.
Observations
existing knowledge, qualitative data, quantitative data
if the reaction is negative the reaction is said to be
exothermic and is written in the products.
Separating a compound into its elements often requires ----, such as -- or --.
external energy heat electricity
Check files
files
When naming ethers that have two identical alkyl chains bonded to oxygen,
first name the alkyl group and then add the word ether.
General exceptions to the octet rule include
first period elements as they only have 2 valence electrons.
Inorganic chemistry
focuces on compounds that don't contain carbon. Ex. Sand
polymer chemistry
focuses on the chemical synthesis, structure, and chemical and physical properties of polymers and macromolecules. chemical interactions Ex. Textiles
In the course of an endothermic process, the system
gains heat from the surroundings and so the temperature of the surroundings decreases. The quantity of heat for a process is represented by the letter q.
Batteries
galvanic cells that use spontaneous redox reactions to produce electrical energy, and they are of two types: primary batteries and secondary batteries.
At the same temperature
gases, liquids, and solids have equal kinetic energy
Example of Structural Isomers:
glucose and fructose (Pentane) (2-methylbutane) (2,2-Geometric isomer too.
Two forces acting on mercury
gravity pulling in down and air pressure pulling it up
Ionic formed from attraction of ions with larger positive or negative energy charges generally has
greater lattice energy
s-Block elements
group 1 has partially filled s blocks (s*1) group 2 has filled s blocks (s*2) consists of groups 1 and 2, and the element helium.
Charge of 3+
group 13 B, Al, Ga, In, Ti
atomic crystalline solids
group 18 noble gases. Soft to very soft; very low melting points; poor electrical conductors.
d-Block elements
group 3-12 contains the transition metals and is the largest of the blocks. has a completely filled s orbital and a partially or completely filled d orbital
Atoms in the same group have ----- because
have similar chemical properties because they have the same number of valence electrons.
The formal name is formed by changing
he -ane of the parent alkane to -anoic acid. If the compound contain branches, number the chain beginning with the carbon of the carboxyl group then apply the rule above.
Different metallic alloy properties can result based on
heating and cooling
Group 18 metals have --- ionization energy
high
Water has a -- surface tension because ---
high its molecules can form multiple hydrogen bonds.
The increase in ionization energy shows that atoms
hold onto their inner cores much more strongly then they do with valence electrons.
Atomic size is defined by
how closely an atom lies to a neighboring atom
Sigma orbitals are made from
hybridized orbitals (sp3 for the 4 sides)
In a chemical reaction using combustion in the reaction it is usually a ------ plus ---- and the product is ----- and ---. (you have to make it balanced as using this only makes it unbalanced)
hydrocarbon + O2 product of CO2 + H2O
Alphatic hydrocarbon
hydrocarbon consisting of a linear chain of carbon atoms
When dissolved in water hydrogen chloride becomes
hydrochloric acid, which is a strong acid.
A binary acid contains
hydrogen and one other element.
One type of dipole-dipole attraction is
hydrogen bond
All water solutions contain
hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-).
(g)
identifies a gaseous state
(I)
identifies a liquid state
(s)
identifies a solid state
(aq)
identifies a water solution
Hess's law states that
if you can add two or more thermochemical equations to produce a final equation for a reaction, then the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual reactions is the enthalpy change for the final reaction.
Subscripts
in the lower right of a symbol, represent the number of ions of each element in an ionic compound.
1. Substitution reactions:
in which an atom, or a group of atoms, replace another atom, or group of atoms.
5. Condensation Reactions (dehydration)
in which two molecules or moieties (functional groups) combine to form a larger molecule, together with the loss of a small molecule. eg. RCOOH + ROH <—> RCOOR + H2O organic acid alcohol either water
3. Addition Reactions:
in which two substituents are added to a molecule.
2. Elimination Reactions:
in which two substituents are removed from a molecule in either a one or two-step mechanism.
Liquids are
incompressible
Trends in first ionization energies--- as you move from left to right in a period and generally ---- as you move down a group.
increase (left to right) decrease (up to down)
As you increase the pressure the density
increases
The viscosity of a fluids decreases as its temperature
increases
electronegativity
indicates the relative ability of its atoms to attract electrons in a chemical bond.
Quantitive data
information about quantities, and therefore numbers
Qualitative data
information that describes color, odor, shape, or some other physical characteristic.
Manometer
instrument to measure gas pressure in a closed container
Higher density of liquids is due to
intermolecular forces
Wavelength and frequency are -- proportionate with one another.
inversely
Surface area is a measure of the
inward pull by particles in there interior
Table salt is an
ionic solid
Weak base
ionizes only partially in dilute aqueous solution.
Polyatomic ions
ions that are made of more than one atom
Spectator Ions
ions that do not participate in the reaction, and they don't appear in the net ionic equation.
The example of two Isotopes and Isobars
iron and nickel. Both have the same mass number which is 58 whereas the atomic number of iron is 26, and the atomic number of nickel is 28.
A physical change
is a change that changes the substance without changing its composition like cutting a sheet of paper, melting, or freezing.
Reversible reaction
is a chemical reaction that can occur in both the forward and the reverse directions.
A mixture
is a combination of two or more pure substances in which each pure substance retains its individual chemical properties.
Resonance
is a condition that occurs when more than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a molecule or ion.
A liquid
is a form of matter that flows, has constant volume, and takes the shape of the container.
A gas
is a form of matter that not only takes the shape of the container, but also fills the entire volume of the container.
Vapor
is a gaseous state of a substance that is solid or liquid in room temperature.
Gamma ray
is a high energy radiation that possess no mass and are neutral meaning they are not deflected.
A solution
is a homogenous mixture from two or more substances.
Photon
is a massless particle that carries a quantum of energy.
Viscosity
is a measure of the resistance of a liquid to flow.
Titration
is a method for determining the concentration of a solution by reacting a known volume of that solution with a solution of known concentration.
A homogenous mixture
is a mixture that has constant composition throughout; it always has a single phase.
Salt Bridge
is a pathway to maintain solution neutrality by allowing the passage of ions from side to another.
A chemical change
is a process that involves one or more substances changing into new ones like burning and rusting.
Neutralization reaction
is a reaction in which an acid and a base in an aqueous solution react to produce a salt and water.
Scientific law
is a relationship in nature that is supported by many experiments.
An experiment
is a set of controlled observations that test the hypothesis.
amorphous
is a solid that lacks the long-range order characteristic of a crystal. examples of amorphous: glass, plastic, rubber, etc... (shapeless)
crystalline solid
is a solid whose atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in an orderly, geometric structure.
Aqueous Solution
is a solution in which the solvent is water.
Chemical equilibrium
is a state in which the forward and reverse reactions balance each other because they take place at equal rates.
Filtration
is a technique that uses a porous barrier to separate a solid from a liquid.
The law of definite proportions states that a compound
is always composed of the same elements in the same proportion by mass, no matter how large or small the sample.
Alkyl group
is an Alkane missing one hydrogen.
ion
is an atom or a bonded group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge.
Galvanic Cell
is an electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy to electrical energy through redox reactions.
Electrolytic Cell
is an electrochemical cell that converts electrical energy to chemical energy.
Beta particle
is an electron with a 1- charge
A theory
is an explanation of natural phenomenon based on many observations and investigations over time.
Barometer
is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.
Complete Ionic Equation
is an ionic equation that shows all the particle in a solution as they exist, and ionic compounds are written as ions in the equation.
Aryl halide Ar-X:
is an organic compound containing a halogen atom bonded to a benzene ring or other aromatic group.
Alkyl halide R-X:
is an organic compound containing a halogen atom covalently bonded to an aliphatic carbon atom.
Plasma
is another state of matter that is present in places with very high temperatures.
A stress
is any kind of change in a system at equilibrium that upsets the equilibrium.
Organic compounds
is applied to all carbon-containing compounds with the primary exceptions of carbon oxides, carbides, and carbonates, which are considered inorganic.
Cathode ray
is originating from the cathode and traveling to the anode.
A chemical property
is the ability or inability of a substance to combine with or change into one or more other substances.
Energy
is the ability to do work or produce heat.
Actual yield
is the amount of product produced when the chemical reaction is carried out in an experiment.
Metallic Bonds
is the attraction of a metallic cation for delocalized electrons, which are free to move electrons.
Reaction rate of a chemical reaction
is the change in concentration of a reactant or product per unit of time.
Osmosis
is the diffusion of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane.
Anode
is the electrode in which oxidation occurs.
Cathode
is the electrode in which reduction occurs.
Surface tension
is the energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid by a given amount
lattice energy
is the energy required to separate 1 mol of the ions of an ionic compound.
Sublimation
is the process during which a solid changes into vapor without melting.
Standard half-cell potential
is the produced potential difference when a half-cell is connected to a hydrogen half-cell under standard conditions.
The wavelength of a particle
is the ratio of Planck's constant and the product of the particle's mass and its velocity.
cell potential (Ecell)
is the standard potential of the reduction half-cell minus the standard potential of the oxidation half-cell.
Nuclear chemistry
is the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties.
When an external force that is strong enough to overcome the attractive forces holding the ion is applied to crystals
it breaks apart because the applied force repositions the like charged ions next to each other, resulting in a repulsive force that breaks them +- +-
Methane is weak because
it is non polar and uses weak dispersion forces
Nonpolar covalent bond (or pure covalent)
it means that electrons in bonds between identical atoms have an electronegativity difference of zero—meaning that the electrons are equally shared between the two atoms.
Covalent bond
it's a chemical bond that results from sharing valence electrons.
Ion
it's an atom or a particle that has a positive (cation) or a negative (anion) charge.
The molar mass of any element is numerically equal to
its atomic mass and has the units g/mol.
The heat required to melt one mole of a solid substance is called
its molar enthalpy (heat) of fusion.
The heat required to vaporize one mole of a liquid is called
its molar enthalpy (heat) of vaporization
Primary fact in determining an atom's stability is
its neutron to proton ratio.
The charge of a monatomic ion is equal to
its oxidation number
You can determine an atom's electron configuration and its number of valence electrons from
its position on the periodic table.
Polymers
large molecules that consist of bonded smaller molecules called monomers.
The strength of the forces holding ions in place is reflected by
lattice energy
chemical equations must show
law of conservation of mass
Atoms in large ionization energy values are --- likely to form positive ions.
less
limiting reactants
limits the extent of the reaction and, thereby, determines the amount of product formed.
Molecular shapes
linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal, bent, trigonal bipyramidal, octa hedral
critical point
located beyond the pressure and temperature
Percent by mass
mass of element/mass of compound x 100
Concentration description: Percent by mass=
mass of solute x 100 mass of solution
environmental chemistry
matter and the environment Ex. Pollution
Max Plank stated a conclusion:
matter can gain or lose energy is small specific amount called quanta
Substance
matter that has a definite and uniform composition.
Elements are classified as
metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.
silicates
minerals that contain an anion that is a combination of silicon and oxygen and usually one or more other elements
Alloy
mixture of elements with metallic properties
• Reaction rate is expressed as
mol/(L · s).
Mole fraction
mole of solute moles of solute + moles of solvent
F-Orbitals have what shape?
no unique shape
Moles (n)=
no. of particles/ Avogadro's number (6.02 x 10*23)
EN = 0
non polar covalent
if the calculated cell potential is negative then the reaction is
non-spontaneous
There is three types of covalent bonds
o Single bond:when one electron gets shared. o Double bond: when two electron get shared. o Triple bond: when three electrons get shared.
Solubility product constant:
o The equilibrium constant expression for the dissolving of a sparingly soluble compound o Ksp o The solubility product constant expression is the product of the concentrations of the dissolved ions, each rose to the power equal to the coefficient of the ion in the chemical equation.
Naming branched and Cyclo-alkenes:
o When naming branched -chain alkenes, follow the IUPAC rules for naming branched- chain alkanes, but with some exceptions. o To name alkenes with four or more carbons in the chain, it is necessary to specify the location of the double bond. This is done by numbering the carbons in the parent chain, starting at the end of the chain that will give the first carbon in the double bond the lowest number. Then, use only that number in the name. It is important to recognize that 1-butene and 2-butene are two different substances, each with its own properties. o Cyclic alkenes are named in much the same way as cyclic alkanes; however, carbon number 1 must be one of the carbons connected by the double bond. o Some unsaturated hydrocarbons contain more than one double (ortriple) bond. The number of double bonds in such molecules is shown by using a prefix (di-, tri-, tetra-, and so on) before the suffix -ene.
determine what got oxidized ,what got reduced, oxidizing reagent, and reducing reagent: 2H2+O2 = 2H2O
o answer:the substance that got oxidized is Hydrogen (it lost electrons and increased the oxidation number) and it is the reducing reagent o the substance that got reduced is Oxygen(it gained electrons and decreased the oxidation number) and it is the oxidizing reagent
atomic mass unit (amu)
one twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom
An applied research
one undertaken to solve a specific problem.
If *ionic bonds* occur between *metals* and the *nonmetal oxygen*, ____________ form.
oxides
The half-cell potential become negative if it
oxidizes when connected to the hydrogen standard half- cell potential
The relationship between both the pH and pOH is that:
pH + pOH = 14.00
pH
pH = -log [H+] The pH of a solution equals the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. [H+] = 10-ph
analytical chemistry
parts and compostiiion of matterEx. Quality control
Polar molecules contain ---- dipoles like
permanent dipoles like H2O
The main two resources for hydrocarbons are
petroleum and natural gas
proteins
polymers are biological organic compounds that consist of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
CO2 melting point has a --- slope
positive
Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation number of groups 1 and 2 metals and aluminum are
positive and equal to their number of valence electrons. K = +1 Ca= +2= +3 Al
ionic crystalline solid
positive and negative ions; electrostatic attractions; hard, brittle high melting point, poor conductor NaCl, KBr, CaCO3
Equation for calculating heat
q = c × m × ΔT
Concentration can be described
qualitatively as diluted or concentrated.
Bohr assigned a number, n, called a ---- , to each orbit.
quantum number
alpha radiation
radiation that was deflected toward the negatively charged plate
Beta radiation
radiation that was deflected toward the positively charged plate
Graham's Law of Diffusion
rate1/rate2 = sqrt(molar mass2/molar mass1) heavier particles diffuse slower note when solving u have to put b first also if 0=15.99 and questions states o2 then multiply 15.99 with 2
When white light passes through a prism, it is separated into a continuous spectrum of its different components—
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet light. (highest frequency -- lowest) (lowest wavelength -- highest)
H+ ions and H2O molecules are added to
redox reaction in the acidic medium.
OH- ions and H2O molecules are added to
redox reaction in the basic medium.
Half-cell potential become positive if it
reduces when connected to the hydrogen standard cell potential.
A pi bond
represented by the Greek letter pi (π), forms when parallel orbitals overlap and share electrons.
In any atom with two or more electrons, the repulsion between the electrons makes energies of subshells with different values of ll differ so that the energy of the orbitals increases within a shell in the order
s < p < d < f.
Quantum
s the minimum amount of energy that can be gained or lost by an atom.
Most other ionic compounds are called
salts
Open chains can be
saturated and unsaturated
An arrow is used to
separate the reactants from the products arrow = yield/react to
+
separates two or more reactants or products
Atoms in nonionic compounds
share electrons. (resulting in covalent bonds)
One third of minerals are
silicates
Empirical formula
simplest numerical ratio between the atoms of the molecule. ethane (CH3)
F2
single covalent (weaker than o2 and n2)
The size of the carbohydrate molecule ranges from
single monomer to polymers that consist of hundreds or thousands of monomers.
In the structure of NaCl, each sodium ion is surrounded by --- chlorine ions
six
White light is a
small fraction of the full electromagnetic spectrum.
Atom
smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of the element.
The name for NaOH is
sodium hydroxide.
At 1 atm in a co2
solid immediately sublimes
Matter can be found in the
solid, liquid, gaseous, or in plasma state.
covalent network solids (state definition and example)
solids in which the units that make up the three-dimensional network are joined by covalent bonds. They are brittle, and non conductors and are extremely hard. Example diamond and quartz.
What is a solute and solvent?
solvent- larger in amount; dissolves the other substance -Solute: =The substance that dissolves in a solvent
Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun causes
some oxygen gas ( O 2 ) to break into individual particles of oxygen (O). These individual particles combine with oxygen gas ( O 2 ) to form ozone ( O 3 ).
activated complex
sometimes called a transition state, is a temporary, unstable arrangement of atoms in which old bonds are breaking and new bonds are forming.
All s orbitals are --, and their size -- with increasing principal quantum number.
spherical increases
The conditions of 0.00°C and 1.00 atm are known as
standard temperature and pressure (STP).
Pauli Exclusion Principle
states that a maximum of two electrons can occupy a single atomic orbital, but only if the electrons have opposite spins.
Law of chemical equilibrium
states that at a given temperature, a chemical system might reach a state in which a particular ratio of reactant and product concentrations has a constant value. aA + bB ⇋ cC + dD
Collision theory
states that atoms, ions, and molecules must collide in order to react.
Gay-Lussac's law
states that the pressure of a fixed amount of gas varies directly with the Kelvin temperature when the volume remains constant. P1/T1 = P2/T2
Boyle's law
states that the volume of a fixed amount of gas held at a constant temperature varies inversely with the pressure. P1*V1 = P2*V2
Charles's law
states that the volume of a given amount of gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature at constant pressure. V1/T1= V2/T2
Law of multiple proportions
states that when different compounds are formed by a combination of the same elements, different masses of one element combine with the same fixed mass of the other element in a ratio of small whole numbers.
The combined gas law
states the relationships between pressure, temperature, and volume of a fixed amount of gas. P1*V1/T1 = P2*V2/T2
The covalent bond between atoms in a molecule is --- but the attraction forces between molecules are ---
strong weak (weak forced is known as intermolecular or van Der Waals force)
Chemistry
study of matter and the changes that it undergoes.
Proton
subatomic particle carrying a charge equal to but opposite that of an electron. Its mass is equal to 1840 of electrons mass.
Neutron
subatomic particle that has a mass nearly equal to that of a proton, but it carries no electric charge.
solid to gas
sublimation
if you decrease the pressure below the triple point when you heat up the solid it will
sublime directly into gas
but at standard pressure it's below the triple point so that's why co2
sublimes
Amphoteric
substances that can act as both acids and bases
To find valence electrons
subtract 10 from group number
What is an example of a result of bonding glucose and fructose
sucrose
Disaccharides example
sucrose, lactose, maltose are the result of the bonding of two monosaccharides molecules. For example sucrose.
supercritical liquid
supercritical fluid is a fluid that has properties of a gas and the liquid it's not exactly a gas and is not exactly a liquid but it's in between the two like a gas it has a lower density than a liquid but like a liquid it can dissolve
Air pressure is greater in --- than --- because--
surface levels than it is in high levels because gravity is greater at the surface and higher. However sea level has mor(one kilo per square cm) because it has less altitudes.
Binary means
that they contain only two different elements. Binary ionic compounds have a metallic cation and a nonmetallic anion.
Catalysts does not affect
the Equilibrium state nor the Equilibrium constant
In an absorption spectrum:
the absorbed frequencies appear as black lines. The black lines correspond to certain frequencies absorbed by an element.
Observation
the act of gathering information.
The water rises along the inner walls of the cylinder. because
the adhesive forces between water molecules and the silicon dioxide in glass are greater than the cohesive forces between water molecules
Calorie(Cal)
the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of pure water by one degree Celsius (1°C) is defined as a calorie.
As n increases, the orbital becomes larger, the electron spends more time farther from the nucleus, and the atom's energy increases. Therefore, n specifies
the atom's major energy levels.
Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation of a monatomic ion is equal to
the charge of the ion. Ex: Ca2+ = +2 Br-= -1
Rules for determining the oxidation number: The sum of oxidation numbers of the atoms in a polyatomic ion is equal to is
the charge of the ion. SO3*2- = (+4) + 3(-2) = -2
A solution's freezing point depression, ΔTf , is
the difference in temperature between its freezing point and the freezing point of its pure solvent.
Chemical equations are not mathematical equations instead they show
the direction in which the reaction progresses
As the number of ions produced by an electrolyte increases,
the effect on the solution colligative properties increases ( AlCl3 > MgCl2 > NaCl ).
The change in enthalpy for a reaction is called
the enthalpy (heat) of reaction (Δ H rxn ).
Changing the volume and pressure of an equilibrium system shifts
the equilibrium only if the number of moles of gaseous reactants is different from the number of moles of gaseous products. o Increasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium to the right and increases the amount of product. o If the number of moles of gas is the same on both sides of the equation, changes in volume and pressure have no effect on the equilibrium.
In general, the greater the charge
the greater the electrostatic attraction, the stronger the ionic bond, the higher the melting point.
If the two alkyl groups are different
the groups are listed in alphabetical order and then followed by the word ether.
Bohr proposed that
the hydrogen atom has only certain allowable energy states.
If the acid were in an aqueous solution
the hydrogen ions are not present. Instead they are joined with the surrounding H2O molecules to form Hydronium ions H3O+
Most real gases deviate from
the ideal gas behavior at high pressure and low temperatures.
Ideal gas obeys
the kinetic molecular theory.
Periodic law:
the law that states that the repeating chemical and physical properties of elements change periodically with the atomic numbers of the elements. Founded by Moseley
Lattice in lithium compound is greater than that of a potassium compound containing the same anion because
the lithium ion is smaller than the potassium ion.
The smaller the electron's orbit,
the lower the atom's energy state, or energy level.
The greater the number of solute particles in a solvent,
the lower the resulting vapor pressure.
Principal energy level.
the major energy levels of an atom
Molar mass
the mass in grams of one mol of any pure substance.
Theoretical yield is
the maximum amount of product that can be produced from a given amount of reactant.
Polymerization by condensation occurs when-- examples like
the monomer contains two functional groups that react together with a loss of smaller molecule like water. Examples like Nylon.
The bigger the non-polar gas particle is
the more it will deviate from the ideal gas behavior.
The partial pressure of a gas depends on
the number of moles of gas, the size of the container, and the temperature of the mixture. It does not depend on the identity of the gas.
Molarity
the number of moles of solute per liter of solution
The coefficients in chemical formulas indicate
the number of mols.
vapor pressure lowering is due to
the number of solute particles in solution.
As n increases,
the orbital becomes larger, the electron spends more time farther from the nucleus, and the atom's energy increases.
triple point
the point on a phase diagram that represents the only set of conditions at which all three phases exist in equilibrium with one another
Structural formula
the position of each atom in the molecule. ethane (CH3CH3)
osmotic pressure
the pressure that would have to be applied to a pure solvent to prevent it from passing into a given solution by osmosis, often used to express the concentration of the solution.
The shapes of atomic orbitals describe
the probable distribution of electrons in energy sublevels.
Chemical reaction
the process by which one or more substances change to produce one or more different substances
The energy of a photon is given by
the product of Planck's constant and the frequency. E photon = hν H:isPlanck'sconstant. V:representsfrequency. E:photon represents energy.
The energy of a quantum is given by
the product of Planck's constant and the frequency. E quantum = hν
The speed of light in a vacuum is equal to
the product of the wavelength and the frequency.
Graham's law of effusion states that
the rate of effusion for a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass. R2/R1 = square root of M1/M2
Percent yield of a product is
the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield expressed as a percent.
Molecular formula
the real numerical ratio between the atoms of the molecule. ethane (C2H6)
Rate law expresses
the relationship between the rate of a chemical reaction and the concentration of reactants at a given temperature. Where R: Reaction Rate, [A]: The concentration of a reactant, k: a constant, n: the reaction order. R= k[A]*n
Negative ions move through the ---- to the---
the salt bridge to the zinc side
Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation number of the more-electronegative atoms in a molecule or a complex ion is
the same as the charge it would have If it were an ion. Ex: N in NH3= -3 O in NO= -2
The oxidation number of a monatomic (composed of one atom) ion is
the same as the charge of the ion. For example, the oxidation numbers of K+, Se2−, and Au3+ are +1, −2, and +3, respectively.
As the principal quantum number, n, increases,
the size of the orbital increases and the electrons spend more time farther from the nucleus.
f Qsp = Ksp,
the solution is saturated, and no change will occur.
If Qsp < Ksp
the solution is unsaturated. No precipitate will form.
A control
the standard by which the test results can be compared is standard for comparison.
The greater the extent to which a substance dissociates (greater ionization)
the stronger an electrolyte it is
When naming amines, the -N H 2 (amino) group is indicated by
the suffix -amine. If one amino group is present, the -e of the root hydrocarbon is dropped and replaced by -amine. When necessary, the position of the amino group is designated by a number. If more than one amino group is present, the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, and so on are used to indicate the number of groups.
The mass of the compound is equal to
the sum of the masses of the ele- ments that make up the compound.
The oxidation number in a polyatomic ion is
the sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms is equal to the overall charge on the ion.
Dalton's law of partial pressures states that
the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all the gases in the mixture. P total = P 1 + P 2 + P 3 + . . . P n.
The viscosity of a liquid is determined by
the type of intermolecular forces in the liquid, the size and shape of the particles, and the temperature.
The octet rule is useful for determining
the type of ions likely to form.
The molar volume of a gas is
the volume that 1 mol occupies at 0.00°C and 1.00 atm pressure.
Atomic mass
the weighted average mass of the isotopes of that element.
The physical structures of ionic compounds contribute to
their physical properties.
If the calculated cell potential is positive
then the reaction is spontaneous
Sulfite ite = at 3 because
they both are in the same group
Gas particles exert pressure when
they collide with the walls of their container.
Because polar molecules are dipoles with partially charges ends,
they have uneven electron density, this is what causes a tendency to align with the electric field.
Ionic compounds can conduct electricity if
they were in a solution or a molten form.
The wave function predicts a
three-dimensional region around the nucleus, called an atomic orbital, which describes the electron's probable location.
When iron got hotter and colors changed different colors corresponded ---
to different frequencies and wavelengths
kinetic means in greek translates to
to move
Sublimation can be used
to separate two solids in a mixture when one of them sublimates without the other.
One safety rule in lab is
to wear goggles, lab coat and gloves, and not to wear contact lenses or lose clothes.
BeCl2
total pairs 2 Shared pairs 2 lone pairs 0 hybrid orbitals sp Molecular shape Linear (180)
AlCl3
total pairs 3 Shared pairs 3 lone pairs 0 hybrid orbitals sp3 Molecular shape trigonal planar (120)
H2O
total pairs 4 Shared pairs 2 lone pairs 2 hybrid orbitals SP3 Molecular shape Bent (104.50
NH3
total pairs 4 Shared pairs 3 lone pairs 1 hybrid orbitals sp3 Molecular shape trigonal pyramidal (107.3)
CH4
total pairs 4 Shared pairs 4 lone pairs 0 hybrid orbitals sp3 Molecular shape Tetrahedral (109.5)
NbBr5
total pairs 5 Shared pairs 5 lone pairs 0 hybrid orbitals sp3d Molecular shape trigonal bipyramidal (120, 90)
SF6
total pairs 6 Shared pairs 6 lone pairs 0 hybrid orbitals sp3d2 Molecular shape Octahedral (90, 90)
Transition elements are divided into
transition metals and inner transition metals
Earth's atmosphere consists of several layers:
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.
Some d orbitals have their own unique shape T of F
true bu they are still double dumbbell
There can be -- electrons in one orbital maximum.
two
The galvanic cell consists of
two half-cells. In one half-cell oxidation occurs, and the other half-cell reduction occurs.
Visible light
type of electromagnetic radiation which is a form of energy that exhibits wavelike behavior as it travels through space.
Radioactive decay
unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation in a spontaneous process
Group number =
valence electrons (or the last electrons they lead for you if the question provides you with noble gas electron configuration)
Percent by volume
volume of solute. x 100 volume of solution
The surface tension of the water allows spiders to
walk on the surface of the water.
Common name and molecular compound name of H20 NH3 N2H4 HCL C9H804
water dihyrogen monoxide ammonia nitrogen trihydride hydrazine dinitorgen tetrahydride muriatic acid hydrochloric acid aspirin 1-(acetyloxyle)benzoic acid
Asymmetric covalent molecules like--- are --- and dissolve in
water (H2O) are polar
If a substance only partially ionizes in solution, meaning some particles dissociate and some do not, this will be called a
weak electrolyte
all intermolecular forces are ---- than intramolecular forces involved in bonding
weaker
Decomposition reaction
when a single compound breaks down into two or more elements or new compounds. ex:2Al2O3 = 4Al+3O2
Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation of an atom of an uncombined element is
zero Ex: Na, O2, Cl2, H2
The oxidation number of an atom in a neutral free element is
zero For example, the oxidation number of each atom in Fe, Li, N2, Ar, and P4 is zero.
Rules for determining the oxidation number: The sum of oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is
zero. CaBr2 = (+2) + 2(-1)= 0
1. John Newlands (1837-1898)
• arranged elements by increasing atomic mass. • noticed the repetition of properties every eighth element. • created the law of octaves.
2. Lothar Meyer(1830-1895)
• demonstrated a connection between atomic mass and elements' properties. • arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass.
3. Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)
• demonstrated a connection between atomic mass and elements' properties. • arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass. • predicted the existence and properties of undiscovered elements.
Henry Moseley (1887-1915)
• discovered that atoms contain a unique number of protons called the atomic number. • arranged elements in order of increasing atomic number, which resulted in a periodic pattern of properties.
H2 (g) + Cl2(g)
→ 2HCl (g)
