Chemistry

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Reactants

A starting material in a chemical reaction

nonelectrolyte

A substance that will not dissociate into ions when dissolved in water will not be able to conduct electricity

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Brønsted-Lowrey (acid and base definition)

Acids : H+ donor Base: H+ acceptor

Arrhenius (acid and base definition)

Acids: H+ producer Bases: OH- producer

electrolyte

An ionic compound whose aqueous solution conducts an electric current is called an electrolyte.

Alcohol

An organic compound in which a hydroxyl group replaces a hydrogen atom of a hydrocarbon.

Cyclic hydrocarbon:

An organic compound that contains a hydrocarbon ring.

Aldehyde

An organic molecule with a carbonyl group located at the end of the carbon skeleton. O II *- C- R Functional group: Carbonyl

There is two types of Isomers:

1. Structural isomers: Have the same chemical formula, but their atoms are bonded in different arrangements.(dimethyl propane)(All of them have five carbons, but in different arrangement) 2. Stereoisomers: Are isomers in which all atoms are bonded in the same order but are arranged differently in space, it includes

Organic Reactions There are 5 chemical reactions:

1. Substitution reactions 2. Elimination Reactions 3. Addition Reactions 4. Oxidation Reduction Reactions 5. Condensation Reactions (dehydration)

Chemical reactions are divided into 5 main types

1. Synthesis reaction 2. Decomposition reaction 3. Replacement reaction 4. Combustion reaction 5. Redox reactions

The naming of the common binary acid known as hydrochloric acid is explained in the following rules.

1. The first word has the prefix hydro- to name the hydrogen part of the compound. The rest of the first word consists of a form of the root of the second element plus the suffix -ic. HCl (hydrogen and chlorine) becomes hydrochloric. 2. The second word is always acid. Thus, HCl in a water solution is called hydrochloric acid. few acids that contain more than two elements are named according to the rules for naming binary acids. If no oxygen is present in the formula for the acidic compound, the acid is named in the same way as a binary acid, except that the root of the second part of the name is the root of the polyatomic ion that the acid contains. For example, HCN, which is composed of hydrogen and the cyanide ion, is called hydrocyanic acid in solution.

A phase diagram for any substance contains: (they are 5 things)

1. Three areas that represent the three physical states (solid, liquid, and gas) 2. Three curves that separate the physical state areas. 3. A triple point, which is the point on a phase diagram that represents the temperature and pressure at which three phases of a substance can coexist. 4. A critical point, which indicates the critical pressure and critical temperature above which water cannot exist as a liquid. 5. Two variables: Temperature and Pressure.

Greater lattice energy=

1. greater charges 2. Smaller ionic distance

KE=

1/2mv^2

there is a --- percent difference in density between solids and liquids

10 percent

Calculate the number of mols in 12x10^23 atoms of silver

12x10^23/6.02x10^23=2mols

ite=

2

CH3CHBrCH2CH2CH2 IUPAC name

2- Bromopentane

prefix per=

4 oxygen

Calculate the number of molecules in 4 mols of water

4*(6.02x10^23)=24.08x10^23molecules.

What is the molar mass of Ca if its atomic mass is 40 amu

40 g/mol

What is the molar mass of calcium chloride CaCl2 (Cl=35.5 Ca=40)

40+(35.5x2)= 111 g/mol

One atmosphere is equal to

760 mmHg or 760 torr or 101.3 kilopascals (kPa).

Mass of an electron=

9.1x10*-28 g = 1/1840 of the mass of a hydrogen atom

Numerical value of gravitational acceleration

9.8 m/s

Endothermic

A chemical reaction or physical change is endothermic if heat is absorbed by the system from the surroundings.

Exothermic

A chemical reaction or physical change is exothermic if heat is released by the system into the surroundings. Because the surroundings is gaining heat from the system, the temperature of the surroundings increases.

Dipole

A dipoleforms, with part of the molecule carrying a slight positive charge and the other part carrying a slight negative charge.

Molecule

A group of atoms bonded together

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

A hydrocarbon that has at least one double (Alkenes) or triple bond (Alkynes) between carbon atoms.

Theory

A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data Hypothesis supposed by many experiments

Van Der Waals forces

(aka London forces or dispersion forces) : relatively weak intermolecular forces holding nonpolar molecules together and characterized by: 1- it connects covalent nonpolar molecules 2- weak intermolecular forces. 3- increases in power with the increase of molecular molar mass

Alpha in math

- 4/-2

Equations show

-the reactants which enter into a reaction -the products which are formed by the reaction -the amounts of each substance used and each substance produced

Beta in math

0/+1

An atom's lowest principal energy level is assigned a principal quantum number of

1

(single bond) 1 line =

1 sigma

- - -

1 sigma, 2 pi

NH2CH2CH2CH2NH2

1, 3-propanediamine

Unsaturated open chain

1. Alkenes C(n)H(2n) 2.Alkynes C(n)H(2n+2)

Naming ionic compounds

1. Name the cation followed by the anion. Remember that the cation is always written first in the formula. 2. For monatomic cations, use the element name. 3. For monatomic anions, use the root of the element name plus the suffix -ide. 4. To distinguish between multiple oxidation numbers of the same element, the name of the chemical formula must indicate the oxidation number of the cation. The oxidation number is written as a Roman numeral in parentheses after the name of the cation. 5. When the compound contains a polyatomic ion, simply name the cation followed by the name of the polyatomic ion. Note: This rule applies to the transition metals and metals on the right side of the periodic table, which often have more than one oxidation number. It does not apply to group 1 and group 2 cations, as they have only one oxidation number.

Chemists use mols to

calculate the number of atoms or representative particles

Carboxylic acid

carboxyl group

Expanded octet

compounds has central atoms with more than 8 valance electrons

Carbohydrates

compounds that contain multiple hydroxyl groups and carbonyl group (ketone or aldehyde).

If the known element is given as mass, it can be converted into mole by

dividing it by its molar mass.

Neutral solutions are

either acidic nor basic.

For a hydrogen bond to form hydrogen must be bonded to

either fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen atom

The electric field will deflect radiation in different directions, depending on the -- of the radiation

electric charge

The salt bridge and wire provide an unbroken pathway for

electrical charge to flow

Dispersion is weak because of

electron cloud repulsion

Limits of Bohr's Model

electrons do not move around the nucleus in circular orbits does not account for chemical behavior of atoms

Electrolysis is used

electroplating, purification of metals, and production of aluminum, hydrogen, and oxygen.

The most stable, lowest-energy arrangement of the electrons is called the

element's ground-state electron configuration.

The loss of energy results in

element+

transition elements

elements in groups 3-12

Inner Transition metals

elements that appear below the main body of the periodic table. Lanthanide series (used extensively as phosphors, substances that emit light when struck by electrons) and Actinide series

When the Δ H rxn is positive the reaction is said to be

endothermic and is written in the reactants

Principal energy levels contain

energy sublevels.

The redo reaction provide --- to ---- the bulb.

energy to light the bulb

C2H2

ethyne

Pressure=

force/area

Organic Chemistry

forcuses on carbon containing compounds Ex. Plastic

Interstitial alloys

formed when the small holes in a metallic crystal are filled with smaller atoms example is carbon steel. Holes in iron crystal are filled with carbon atoms and the physical properties of iron are change iron is soft and malleable however the presence of carbon makes the solid harder, stronger, and less ductile than pure iron.

Coordinate covalent bond

forms when one atom donates both of the electrons to be shared with an atom or ion that needs two electrons to form a stable electron arrangement with lower potential energy.

If the pressure was above the triple point it would go

from solid to liquid to gas

example of amorphous solid

glass, rubber, plastic

Transition Metals

groups 3-12 Titanium is so strong, it is used to make frames for bicycles and eye glasses.

Atomic radius of metals

half the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent atoms in the crystal.

Metalloids

have physical and chemical properties of both metals and nonmetals. Ex: Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge).

thermochemistry

heat involved in chemical processes Ex. Heat of reaction

Evidence of chemical reactions

is change in color, taste, elimination of gas, or a precipitate.

Pressure

is defined as force per unit area.

Ionization energy

is defined as the energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom.

For nonelectrolytes, the value of the boiling point elevation, which is symbolized ΔTb ,

is directly propor- tional to the solution's molality.

Ionic compound

is neutral because the positive charges equal the negative charges.

A heterogeneous mixture

is one that does not blend smoothly throughout and in which the individual substance remains distinct.

Empirical formula

is the formula with the smallest whole-number mol ratio of the elements. It can be the same as the original chemical formula, or the chemical formula can be a simple multiple of the empirical formula.

Enthalpy (H)

is the heat content of a system at constant pressure.

Tyndall effect:

is the scattering of light due to the dispersed colloid particles.

The atomic emission spectrum of an element

is the set of frequencies of the electromagnetic waves emitted by atoms of the element.

unit cell

is the smallest arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice that has the same symmetry as the whole crystal.

Conjugate acid

is the species produced when a base accepts a hydrogen ion.

Conjugate base

is the species that results when an acid donates a hydrogen ion.

Chromatography

is the technique that separates the components of a mixture dissolved in either a gas or a liquid based on the ability on each component to travel or to be drawn across the surface of a fixed substrate.

Boiling point elevation

is the temperature difference between a solution's boiling point and a pure solvent's boiling point.

Electrolysis

is the use to electrical energy to drive a non-spontaneous reaction.

A constant

is variable that is not allowed to change during the experiment.

Polar covalent bond

is when different elements have different electronegativities, the electron pairs in a covalent bond between different atoms are not shared equally.

How do soaps and detergent decrease surface tension?

it breaks the hydrogen atoms and water allows the spread out of wrist to be carried by water

Group 1 metals have --- ionization energy

low

Osmosis plays an important role in

many biological systems, such as the uptake of nutrients by plants.

All the gas particles have the same --- but different ---, therefore the ---- is not the same for all.

mass velocity kinetic energy

Moles (mole)=

mass (g)/ formula or atomic mass

balanced equations reflects

mass and charge balances

Weight equals

mass multiplied by gravitational acceleration.

Neutrons number

mass number - atomic number.

Percent by mass =

mass of element in 1 mol of compound/ molar mass of compound x 100

Line between liquid and solid

melting point line

Phase changes that require energy

melting, vaporization, sublimation

Semipermeable

membranes are barriers that allow some, but not all, particles to cross.

alkaline earth metals

metallic elements in group 2 of the periodic table which are harder than the alkali metals and are also highly reactive. Calcium (minerals good for health), Magnesium(solid, light used in computers). Beryllium Magnesium Calcium Strontium Barium Radium

Molarity

moles of solute kilogram of solvent

simplest type of carbohydrate example:

monosaccharide glucose and fructose.

In general, the particles in a solid are ---- thus

more closely packed than those in a liquid. Thus, most solids are more dense than most liquids.

lower energy states are

more stable

ate=

more than 2

less than 0.4 electronegative difference

mostly covalent

electronegativity difference more than 1.7

mostly ionic

Osmotic pressure

movement of water across a semipermeable membrane, with the solvent (water, for example) moving from an area of low solute (dissolved material) concentration to an area of high solute concentration. In this case, the semipermeable membrane does not allow the solute to pass through.

He suggested that the electron in a hydrogen atom

moves around the nucleus in only certain allowed circular orbits.

Tolune

mp= -93C

Benzene

mp= 5.5C

at 25C and 1 atm liquids are

much denser than gas and its vapor

In order to calculate the numbers of Hydrogen ions

multiply the concentration of the acid with the number of the acid. And the same thing goes for the knowing of the number Hydroxide ions.

Collision theory which states that particles --- depends on-- (4 points)

must collide in order to react. The number of collisions between reacting particles depends on the concentration of the particles. o By increasing the concentration of reactants the number of effective collisions between them increases producing more product compound making the rate of forward reaction increase. o In time, the rate of the forward reaction slows down as the concentrations of the reactants will decrease. Simultaneously, the rate of the reverse reaction increases as more. Product molecules are produced. Eventually, a new equilibrium position is established o Any increase in the concentration of a reactant results in a shift to the right and additional product. o Removing products Suppose that rather than injecting more reactant, the chemist decides to remove a product. The equilibrium shifts to the right and results in additional product.

In general, compounds that occur -- are more stable than the individual component elements.

naturally

Troposphere

nearest layer to earth, contains 75-80 percent of atmosphere's mass it is where weather, clouds are located.

H20 melting point has a --- slope

negative (as you move to the right the Line decreases in melting line)

Electron

negatively charged particle, has a very low mass, and moves in high speed.

no ionization(disassociation)=

no electrolyte

The Arrhenius Model:

o An acid is a substance that contains hydrogen and ionizes to produce hydrogen ions in aqueous solution. o A base is a substance that contains a hydroxide group and dissociates to produce a hydroxide ion in aqueous solution.

The Kinetic-Molecular Theory:-

o Gas particles are very small compared to the empty areas between them. o Gas particles experience no significant attractive or repulsive forces. o Gas particles are in constant, random motion and move in a straight line until they collide with other particles or with the walls of their container. o Collisions between gas particles are elastic. An elastic collision is one in which no kinetic energy is lost. Kinetic energy can be transferred between colliding particles, but the total kinetic energy of the two particles does not change. o Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter.

Properties of metals include:

o Malleability, ductility, and durability o Hardness and strength o High melting and boiling points o High thermal and electrical conductivity

Esters RCOOR :

o Organic compounds derived from Carboxylic acids by changing a Hydrogen by Carboxyl group. o Naming: Alkyl Alkanoate. o e.g: CH3COOCH2CH2CH3 Propyl ethanoate CH3(CH2)4COOCH3 Methyl hexanoate

Amide:

o Organic compounds formed by changing-OH in Carboxylic acids to a Nitrogen atom. o Naming: Alkanamide o e.g: Ch2CONH2 Ethanamide CH3(CH2)3CONH2 Pentanamide

There are several ways to protect metals against corrosion:

o Painting the surface of the metal o Coating the metal with another metal o Using sacrificial anodes

Naming branched-chain alkanes:

o Step 1 Count the number of carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain. Use the name of the straight-chain alkane with that number of carbons as the name of the parent chain of the structure. o Step 2 Number each carbon in the parent chain. Locate the end carbon closest to a substituent group. Label that carbon Position 1. This step gives all the substituent groups the lowest position numbers possible. o Step3. Name each alkyl group substituent. Place the name of the group before the name of the parent chain. o Step 4. If the same alkyl group occurs more than once as a branch on the parent structure, use a prefix (di-, tri-, tetra-, and so on) before its name to indicate how many times it appears. Then, use the number of the carbon to which each is attached to indicate its position. o Step 5. When different alkyl groups are attached to the same parent structure, placet heir names in alphabetical order. Do not consider the prefixes (di-, tri-, and so on) when determining alphabetical order. o Step 6. Write the entire name, using hyphens to separate numbers from words and commas to separate numbers. Do not add a space between the substituent name and the name of the parent chain.

Naming Alkynes:

o Straight-chain alkynes and branched-chain alkynes are named in the same way as alkenes.The only difference is that the name of the parent chain ends in -yne rather than -ene.

Naming binary molecules (only non metals)

oThe naming of N2O is explained in the following rules. 1. The first element in the formula is always named first, using the entire element name. N is the symbol for nitrogen. 2. The second element in the formula is named using its root and adding the suffix -ide. O is the symbol for oxygen so the second word is oxide. 3. Prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of each element that are present in the compound. There are two atoms of nitrogen and one atom of oxygen, so the first word is dinitrogen and second word is monoxide.

Steps of the Scientific Method

observation, hypothesis, experiment, conclusion theory, hypothesis, experiment, scientific law.

Cyclic --

occurring in cycles; regularly repeated 1. Saturated 2. Unsaturated

An endothermic reaction

occurs when a greater amount of energy is required to break the existing bonds in the reactants than is released when the new bonds form in the products.

An exothermic reaction

occurs when more energy is released during product bond formation than is required to break bonds in the reactants.

The standard enthalpy (heat)

of the formation of one mole of the compound in its standard state from its elements in their standard states.

When energy is added or removed from a system

one phase can change into another.

*A multiple covalent bond consists of

one sigma bond and at least one pi bond.

Dipole dipole is strong because of

oppositely charged regions aligning

Brownian motion

or pedesis (greek word meaning leaping) the chaotic movement of colloidal particles, caused by collision with particles of the solvent in which they are dispersed. is the random movement of liquid colloid particles.

Amino acids

organic compounds that contain a carboxyl group and amino group

How are sigma bonds formed?

overlapping of atomic orbitals

An acid that contains both a hydrogen atom and an oxyanion is referred to as an

oxyacid Recall that an oxyanion is a polyatomic ion containing one or more oxygen atoms.

Ozone hole

ozone layer thinning over Antarctica, as a result of the reaction between ozone and chlorofluorocarbons.

pOH

pOH = -log [OH-] The pOH of a solution equals the negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration [OH-]=10-ph

Capillary action explains how

paper towels can absorb large amounts of water as water is drawn into narrow spaces between the cellulose fibers in paper towels by capillary action in a edition water molecules form hydrogen bonds with the cellulose molecules.

Kinetic Molecular Theory of liquid

particles do not have fixed positions forced of attractions limit their range of motion so that particles remain closely packed in a fixed position particles partially overcome the attractive forces between them particles can move about but remain close to each other incompressible stronger intermolecular attractive forced = higher viscosity

The processes used to separate mixtures are

physical processes that are based on the differences in the physical properties of the substances.

electronegative difference 0.4-1.7

polar covalent

Difference between polar and non polar

polar- 2 nonmetal atoms that have different electronegativities and therefore have unequal sharing of the bonding electron pair are attracted by electric field nonpolar- 2 nonmetal atoms that have the same electronegativity and therefore have equal sharing of the bonding electron pair are not attracted by electric field

How to tell if it is polar non polar

polar: has hydrogen attached to N, O F presence of alcohol (OH) CH3NH2 (NH) non identical S-C-O Non polar one element (chlorine, sodium, etc) (diatomic of monatomic) Molecule contains carbon (ethane, methane) CH4, C2H6 All sides are symmetrical (4 sides are identical and filled)

KCL

potassium chloride will dissociate entirely, so it is a strong electrolyte.

The de Broglie equation

predicts that all moving particles have wave characteristics.

The first one is the

principal quantum number (n) and indicates the relative size and energy of atomic orbitals.

Table salt and table sugar look the same however the differ in

properties (sugar melts salt does not)

C3H4

propyle

Biological Organic compounds contain

proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Physical properties usually describe

pure substances.

A solid

s a form of matter that has its own definite shape and volume.

Functional group

s an atom or group of atoms that always reacts in a certain way. The addition of a functional group to a hydrocarbon structure always produces a substance with physical and chemical properties that differ from those of the parent hydrocarbon.

Pascal

s international unit for pressure and one pascal is equal to a force of one newton per square meter: 1 Pa equals 1 N/ m 2.

The addition of ---- completes the pathway

salt bridge

separates reactants from products

→ ←

separates reactants from products and indicates a reversible reaction

Aufbau Principle

states that each electron occupies the lowest energy orbital available.

Avogadro's principle

states that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of particles.

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle

states that it is fundamentally impossible to know precisely both the velocity and position of a particle at the same time.

The law of conservation of mass

states that mass is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction. ( mass of reactants = mass of products )

Hund's rule

states that single electrons with the same spin must occupy each equal-energy orbital before additional electrons with opposite spins can occupy the same orbitals.

DNA, RNA are two molecules that

store information in the cell.

Some solutes, such as ---- are molecular compounds that exist as molecules in aqueous solutions.

sucrose and ethanol

In general, the stronger the attractions between particles, the greater the

surface tension.

Compounds that lower the surface tension of water are called

surface-active agents or surfactants.

To find the period

take the last principal energy level (N)

Viscosity is affected by

temp, size, and shape

The atmosphere is comprised of layers based on

temperature

Whether ionic solids are polyatomic or monatomic they still

tend to be strong electrolytes

Left side elements

tend to gain electrons, so they form negative ions.

Right side elements

tend to lose electrons, so they form positive ions.

Capillary action

tendency of water to rise in a thin tube

The logarithmic nature of the pH scale means

that a change of one pH unit represents a tenfold change in ion concentration.

The density of a liquid is much greater than

that of its vapor at the same conditions.

When the atom is in an excited state,

the electron can drop from the higher-energy orbit to a lower- energy orbit. As a result of this transition, the atom emits a photon corresponding to the energy difference between the two levels.

As the charge on the cation increases,

the electrostatic attraction of the cation for the outer electrons of the anions also increases. Due to this, the ability for forming covalent bond increases.

amorphous solids

the particles are not arranged in a regular pattern amorphous comes from greek word meaning no shape

Percent composition

the percent by mass of each element in a compound.

The energy level of an element's valence electrons indicates

the period on the periodic table in which it is found.

In the case of all strong acids, water is --- This will cause the Acid to ---

the stronger base. This will cause the Acid to Donate all of its Hydrogen ions and vise versa for weak acids.

Mass number

the sum of the atomic number (or number of protons) and neutrons in the nucleus.

A single bond represents

two electrons

liquid to gas

vaporization

Dipole-Dipole forces

when the positive pole is attracted to the negative pole of the polar molecule

Equivalence point

which is the point at which moles of H+ ion from the acid equal moles of OH ion from the base.

Homogeneous equilibrium

which means that all the reactants and products are in the same physical state.

phase diagram of water what is y axis and what is x axis

y axis is pressure (atm) and x axis is temp C

Polyatomic Anions

Anions in this group containing oxygen are referred to as oxyanions and are all named with an -ate or -ite ending.

Barite

BaSO4 (silicate)

Beryl

Be3Al2Si6O18

Examples of Aromatic Compounds

Benzene, Naphthalene, Anthracene

Colloid vs suspension

Both are large in size, and can be separated by filtration. Colloids: Scatter light (Tyndall effect) Suspensions: May either scatter light or be opaque

THE GAS LAWS

Boyle's law Charles's law Gay-Lussac's law The combined gas law The ideal gas law Molar mass and ideal gas law Density and ideal gas law

Acetate

C2H3O2-

Argonite

CaCO3 (carbonate)

Least electronegative elements are

Cesium (0.79) Francium (0.70)

Acid-base indicators:

Chemical dyes whose colors are affected by acidic and basic solutions such as Phenolphthalein o Not all indicators are dyes some could be like the litmus paper. o Another strip is used to measure the pH of the solution called the pH paper: When a strip of pH paper is dipped into an acidic solution or a basic solution, the color of the paper changes. To determine the pH, the new color of the paper is compared with standard pH colors on a chart,

What is a way of naming compounds?

Chemical nomenclature

To balance an equation, you must find the correct --- for the chemical formulas

Coefficients

Cu*2+ + 2e*- ----->

Cu

Alphatic hydrocarbon have 2

Cyclic and Open Chain

What makes communication of information possible for elements?

Each element has a unique chemical name and symbol to make the communication of information possible.

Lipids

Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. are biological organic non polar that makeup most of structure of cell membranes.

who discovered the proton?

Ernest Rutherford (he concluded that atom consisted of mostly empty space through which electrons move and that all of the atom's positive charge were in the nucleus)

Ester

Ester group

CH3CHO

Ethanal(Acetaldehyde)

CH3CH2

Ethyl

Examples of non polar covalent

Examples: O2, N2, H2

Saturated

Fats with the maximum number of hydrogens. Cyclic Alkane

Iron reacts with oxygen according to the following formula: 4Fe + 3O2 -> 2Fe2O3 How many moles of Fe is required to react with 12 mol O2?

Fe Mols= Fe Coefficient/ O2 Coefficient x O2 = 4mol Fe/ 3mol O2 x 12mol O2 = 16mol Fe

Phase Changes That Release Energy:

Freezing, Condensation, and Deposition.

Democritus

Greek philosopher, believed matter was made up of tiny individual particles called atoms.

Aristotle

Greek philosopher, rejected the notion of atoms.

Charge of 1+

Group 1 H, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs

Alkali Metals

Group 1, very reactive, soft, silver, shiny, low density; usually exist in compounds with other elements Lithium(batteries), Sodium (salt), Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium, Francium

Charge of 3-

Group 15 N, P, As

Charge of 2-

Group 16 0, S, Se, Te

Sulfuric

H2SO4 (Strong Acid) ---> H+ + HSO4-

Sulfuric acid

H2SO4 is named Sulfuric acid because the anion SO4 -2 is named Sulfate

What did Einstein propose?

He proposed that that all electromagnetic waves are quantized. light has a dual nature, a beam of light had wavelike and particle like properties. energy of a photon must have a threshold value to cause ejection of a photoelectron from a surface of the metal. even small numbers of photons with energy above the threshold value will cause photoelectric effect

ΔHrxn=

Hfinal-Hinitial

mercury(I)

Hg22+

solution vs suspension

In a solution, the solute particles that are in the solvent are evenly mixed and so small that you can't see them. In a suspension, the pieces of solute are large and can be seen floating throughout the solvent. solution= homogeneous suspension= heterogeneous

Ions of the same element have different charges

Iron II Fe2+ Iron III Fe3+ Cupper I Cu+1 Cupper II Cu+2 Manganese II Mn+2 Manganese III Mn+3

Ion product constant for water:

Kw = [H+][OH-] = 1.0 x 10^-14 o The value of the equilibrium constant expression for the self-ionization of water.o Pure water at 298 K, [H+] and [OH-] are both equal to 1.0 × 10-7M. Therefore, at 298 K, the value of Kw is 1.0 × 10-14. o Kw = [H+][OH-] = (1.0 × 10-7)(1.0 × 10-7) o Kw=1.0×10-14

Famous Scientific laws:

Law of conservation of mass. Law of conservation of energy. Law of conservation of momentum. Law of gravity. Newton's first, second law Newton's law of universal gravitation.

---- they can represent the arrangement of electrons in a molecule.

Lewis structure

Formula unit of Magnesium chloride is The total charge is--

MgCl2 because the magnesium chloride exist in a 1:2 ratio total charge is is 0 because it contains one Mg2+ and two Cl- (MgCl2) giving a total of 0

Magnesium oxide

MgO

When the ionic compound sodium hydroxide (NaOH) dissolves in water:

NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Dissociation Equations for Strong Bases: NaOH(s) → KOH(s) → RbOH(s) → CsOH(s) → Ca(OH)2(s) → Ba(OH)2(s) →

NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) KOH(s) → K+(aq) + OH-(aq) RbOH(s) → Rb+(aq) + OH-(aq) CsOH(s) → Cs+(aq) + OH-(aq) Ca(OH)2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Ba(OH)2(s) → Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

Is Neon atomic spectrum continuous?

Neon atomic spectrum is not continuous like the visible light spectrum of white light.

Units of electronegativity

Paulings, named after Linus Pauling

Sublevels

S, P D, F

sulfite

SO3 2-

Scientific theory vs Scientific Law

Scientific laws describe phenomena that the scientific community has found to be provably true. Generally, laws describe what will happen in a given situation as demonstrable by a mathematical equation, whereas theories describe how the phenomenon happens.

Types of replacement reactions

Single substitution Double substitution

who lent in the accidental discovery of television?

Sir William Crookes

Baking soda

Sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3

Octet rule

States that atoms lose, gain or share electrons in order to acquire a full set of eight valence electrons

Bond- dissociation energy

The amount of energy required to break a specific covalent and it is always a positive value.

There are exceptions to using the prefixes.

The first element in the compound name never uses the mono- prefix. For example, CO is carbon monoxide, not monocarbon monoxide. Also, if using a prefix results in two consecutive vowels, one of the vowels is usually dropped to avoid an awkward pronunciation. For example, notice that the oxygen atom in CO is called monoxide, not monooxide.

What has greater lattice energy?

The ionic bond formed from the attraction of ions with larger positive or negative charges generally has a greater lattice energy.

When an ionic solid dissolves in water or melts to become liquid

The ions dissociate from one another. Ions that were locked together are now free to move and can conduct electricity. It becomes an electrolyte.

mol

The mole, abbreviated mol, is the SI base unit used to measure the amount of a substance.

Atomic number

The number of protons in an atom.

Hydrocarbons

The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons, which contain only the elements carbon and hydrogen.

Who conducted experiments to measure the rates of effusion?

Thomas Graham. He discovered an inverse relationship between effusion rates and molar mass.

Examples of Geometric Isomer:

Trans-2-butene, cis-2-butene

radioactive decay.

Unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation in a spontaneous process called radioactive decay.

How do you form ionic compounds in question?

Use the cirrscross method 1. Write the symbol and charge of the cation (metal) first and the anion (nonmetal) second. 2. Transpose only the number of the positive charge to become the subscript of the anion and the number only of the negative charge to become the subscript of the cation. 3. Reduce to the lowest ratio. 4. Write the final formula. Leave out all subscripts that are 1.

Single substitution

When a reaction involves an element which displaces another in a compound. The name "displacement reaction" is also used. A reaction in which the atoms of one element replace the atoms of another less reactive element in a compound. ex: Cu+2AgNO3 = Cu(NO3)2+2Ag

Zn ----->

Zn*2+ + 2e*-

Ka=

[Product]/[Reactants]

Keq=

[products]/[reactants]

Brønsted-Lowry model In this Case the water acts like a Brønsted-Lowry acid as it donates ---

a Hydrogen ion

Bonding of Hydrogen atom to an atom with high electronegativity (works as

a bridge between two molecules) ex. (HF-NH3-H2O)

Glucose is

a carbohydrate with an aldehyde structure when it is open-chain and also has a cyclic ether structure.

The arrangement in which an oxygen atom is double-bonded to a carbon atom is called

a carbonyl group. This group is the functional group in organic compounds known as aldehydes and ketones.

As with the pH scale,

a change of one pOH unit expresses a tenfold change in ion concentration.

combustion reaction

a chemical reaction that occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen, releasing energy in the form of heat and light. ex: C+O2 = CO2

A wax is a lipid that is formed by combining

a fatty acid with a long-chain alcohol.

A phase diagram is

a graph of pressure versus temperature that shows in which phase a substance exists under different conditions of temperature and pressure.

Phase diagram

a graph showing the conditions at which a substance exists as a solid, liquid, or vapor

Saturated Hydrocarbons

a hydrocarbon having only single bonds.

Weight

a measure not only of the amount of matter but also of the effect of Earth's gravitational pull on that matter.

Mass

a measurement that reflects the amount of matter.

The Brønsted-Lowry Model

a model of acids and bases in which an acid is a hydrogen-ion donor and a base is a hydrogen-ion acceptor An acid is a hydrogen-ion donor. A base is a hydrogen-ion acceptor.

Monatomic ion

a one-atom ion, such as Mg2+ or Br-

Intensive properties

a physical property that remains the same no matter how much of a substance is present. are independent on the amount present on the substance like density.

Oxyanion

a polyatomic ion composed of an element, usually a nonmetal, bonded to one or more oxygen atoms

If Qsp > Ksp

a precipitate will form, reducing the concentrations of the ions in the solution until the product of their concentrations in the Ksp expression equals the numerical value of Ksp. Then the system is in equilibrium, and the solution is saturated.

If the cylinder is extremely narrow,

a thin film of water will be drawn upward. This movement of a liquid such as water is called capillary action, or capillarity.

A pure research

a type of scientific investigation that seeks to gain knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself is to gain knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself.

Ionic radii

a) Positive ions are smaller than the neutral atoms from which they form. b) Negative ions are larger than the neutral atoms from which they form.

The relative amounts of the two ions determine whether an aqueous solution is

acidic, basic, or neutral.

Alcohols are named by

adding -ol to the end of the name of the corresponding Alkane and if it is branched then number the chain from the side that gives the Hydroxyl group the lowest.

Fractional distillation

also called fractionation, which involves boiling the petroleum and collecting components or fractions as they condense at different temperatures.

Changes in temperature:

alters both the equilibrium position and the equilibrium constant. o Every chemical reaction is either Endothermic or Exothermic o If a chemical reaction has a negative ΔH°, which means that the forward reaction is exothermic and the reverse reaction is endothermic. o In an exothermic reaction raising the temperature shifts the equilibrium to the left. o Lowering the temperature results in a shift to the right, The opposite is true for the endothermic reaction.

Amide

amide group

O-H bonds in water in water are more polar than N-H bonds in ammonia because

ammonia is gas at room temp which indicated that at the attractive forces are not strong.

The name for (NH4)2 is

ammonium sulfide.

The natural atom has

an equal number of protons and electrons.

Word equations

an equation in which the reactants and products in a chemical reaction are represented by words or statements ex: aluminium (s) + bromine (I) → aluminium bromide

Aldehyde

an organic compound in which a carbonyl group located at the end of a carbon chain is bonded to a carbon atom on one side and a hydrogen atom on the other.

Ketone

an organic compound in which the carbon of the carbonyl group is bonded to two other carbon atoms.

Carboxylic acid:

an organic compound that has a carboxyl group.

Scientific method

an organized process used by scientists to do research, and it provides a method for scientists to verify the work of others.

Halocarbon

any member of a class of organic compounds containing covalently bonded fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine Functional group: Halogen General formula: R-X (X= F, Cl, Br, I)

Matter

anything that has mass and takes up space.

Alkanes

are hydrocarbons that have only single bonds between atoms.

Sigma bonds

are strong bond and can form when an s orbital overlaps with another s orbital or a p orbital, or two p orbitals overlap end-to-end.

Isomers

are two or more compounds that have the same molecular formula but different molecular structures.

arm=

atmospheric pressure

types of crystalline solids

atomic, molecular, covalent network, ionic, metallic

A thermochemical equation is a

balanced chemical equation that includes the physical states of all reactants and products and the energy change, usually expressed as the change in enthalpy, ΔH.

Why is the overall charge of a formula unit zero?

because the formula unit represents the entire crystal which is electrically neutral. And also since an ionic compound consists of equal number of positive and negative ions, the overall charge of an ionic compound is zero.J

Why don't double gasses have electronegativity values?

because they form very few compounds.

Physical chemistry

behavior and changes of matter and the related energy changesEx. Reaction rates

Acidic solutions have pH values

below 7.

gas can liquify if point is

below the critical point if above it'll be supercritical fluid not liquid

Water molecule has a --- shape

bent shape (which makes it polar)

The hydrogen bonds in water molecules are stronger than the typical dipole-dipole attractions because the bond

between hydrogen and oxygen is highly polar

For Example: Mg(OH)2(s) ⇌ Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) ksp=

((Mg*2+)(OH-2))

CH3CH2 CH2C(CH3)2 CH3

(2, 2) dimythylepentane

Acid ionization constant

(Ka) is the value of the equilibrium constant expression for the ionization of a weak acid.

Electronegativity generally --- as you move from left to right in a period and generally ---- as you move down a group.

(Left to right) increases (up to down) decreases

Ion product

(Qsp) It is a trial value that can be compared with Ksp.

Monotomic anions

(accept electrons) end with ide H-= hydride Cl- = chloride Br- = bromide I- = iodide S2- = sulfide P3- = phosphide

Atomic radius of nonmetals

(determine from a molecule of two identical atoms) half the distance between nuclei of identical atoms that are chemically bonded together.

Paschen series

(infrared), in which electrons drop into the n = 3 orbit.

Principal quantum number

(n) indicates the relative size and energy of atomic orbitals.

Wavelength

(represented by λ, the Greek letter lambda) the shortest distance between equivalent points on a continuous wave.

Lyman series

(ultraviolet) electron transitions have been measured that are not visible in which electrons drop into the n = 1 orbit,

Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation number of hydrogen in most compounds is

+1 , except metal hybrides, then the oxidation number is -1

molecular crystalline solids

- Force: IMFs, H bonding, dipole attraction, dispersion forces - Examples: H2O, I2, NH3, NaCl, C12H22011 Hal, He - high melting points - fairly soft - poor conductivity

covalent network crystals

- carbon forms 3 types of covalent network crystals: graphite, diamond, buckminsterfullerene. (an element such as carbon that exists in many different forms at the same state - liquid, solid, gas- is called allotrope) - fairy soft -very high melting points - poor conductor - diamond (C), and quartz (SiO3)

Dalton's atomic theory

---Matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms. ---Atoms are indivisible and indestructible. --- Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and chemical properties. --- Atoms of a specific element are different from those of another element. --- Different atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds. --- In a chemical reaction, atoms are separated, combined or rearranged. (Law of Conservation of Mass)

Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation number of the most electronegative elements, fluorine's always

-1 when bonded with another element. Ex: F in LiF= -1

prefixes in covalent compounds Number of atoms 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 mono- 2 di- 3 tri- 4 tetra- 5 penta- 6 hexa- 7 hepta- 8 octa- 9 nona- 10 deca-

(double bond) 2 lines=

1 sigma + 1pi

(triple bond) 3 lines=

1 sigma + 2pi

n ranges from

1 to 7.

The s sublevel has just -- orbital, so can contain--electrons max. The p sublevel has -- orbitals, so can contain -- electrons max. The d sublevel has -- orbitals, so can contain -- electrons max.

1, 2 3, 6 5, 10

The speed of a reaction increases when

1- Concentration is increased 2- Surface area of reactants is increased 3- Temperature is increased 4- Presence of a catalyst

Molecular formulas:

1- Empirical formula 2- Molecular formula 3- Structural formula

effects of Hydrogen bond :

1- Higher the boiling point 2- increase the solubility of the molecule in polar solvents

Some properties of Hydrocarbons:

1- Hydrocarbons are non-polar and it does not dissolve in water 2- Alkanes have weak chemical activity because of the strength of C-C and C-H bonds. 3- Alkenes and Alkynes have strong chemical activity and Alkynes are more active than Alkenes 4- Because they are non-polar, they have low boiling and melting point5- As the molecular mass increases the boiling point increases.

Naming Cycloalkanes:

1- Substituted cycloalkanes are named by following the same IUPAC rules used for straight-chain alkanes. 2- With cycloalkanes, there is no need to find the longest chain because the ring is always considered to be the parent chain. Because a cyclic structure has no ends, numbering is started on the carbon that is bonded to the substituent group. 3- When there are two or more substituents, the carbons are numbered around the ring in a way that gives the lowest-possible set of numbers for the substituents. If only one group is attached to the ring, no number is necessary.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule:

1- The odd valency number of NO2 2- suboctets- stable configurations with fewer than eight electrons present around an atom. ex BH3 3- expanded octet- stable configurations with more than eight electrons present around an atom. ex PCl5 and SF6

Colligative properties include:

1- Vapor pressure lowering. 2- Boiling point elevation. 3- Freezing point depression. 4- Osmotic pressure.

Calculations Based on Chemical Formulas To perform any chemical calculation you'll need the following:

1. A balanced chemical equation. 2. The mole ratio. 3. Conversion factor (mole - mass) or (mass - mole)

Proteins have various functions in the body:

1. Accelerating chemical reactions (like enzymes) 2. Transportation of nutrients and regulation of cellular processes. 3. Communication between cells. 4. Structural support of the cells.

Rules for naming Alkyl and Aryl Halides

1. Choose the longest chain containing the Halogen to be the main chain for the name. 2. Number the chain or the ring in a way that gives lowest number for the halogens. 3. Substitute the prefix -ine with -o ( So Chlorine become Chloro)4. The atoms must be listed alphabetically in the name.

The following rules explain the naming of nitric acid (HNO3), an oxyacid.

1. First, identify the oxyanion present. The first word of an oxyacid's name consists of the root of the oxyanion and the prefix per- or hypo- if it is part of the oxyanion's name. The first word of the oxyacid's name also has a suffix that depends on the oxyanion's suffix. If the oxyanion's name ends with the suffix -ate, replace it with the suffix -ic. If the name of the oxyanion ends with the suffix -ite, replace it with the suffix -ous. NO3 -, the nitrate ion, becomes nitric. 2. The second word of the name is always acid. HNO3 (hydrogen and the nitrate ion) becomes nitric acid.

Steps for drawing lewis structure:

1. Predict the location of certain atoms. The atom that has the least attraction for shared electrons will be the central atom in the molecule. This element is usually the one closer to the left side of the periodic table. The central atom is located in the center of the molecule; all other atoms become terminal atoms. Hydrogen is always a terminal, or end, atom. Because it can share only one pair of electrons, hydrogen can be connected to only one other atom. 2. Determine the number of electrons available for bonding. This number is equal to the total number of valence electrons in the atoms that make up the molecule. 3. Determine the number of bonding pairs. To do this, divide the number of electrons available for bonding by two. 4. Place the bonding pairs. Place one bonding pair (single bond) between the central atom and each of the terminal atoms. 5. Determine the number of electron pairs remaining. To do this, subtract the number of pairs used in Step 4 from the total number of bonding pairs determined in Step 3. These remaining pairs include lone pairs as well as pairs used in double and triple bonds. Place lone pairs around each terminal atom (except H atoms) bonded to the central atom to satisfy the octet rule. Any remaining pairs will be assigned to the central atom. 6. Determine whether the central atom satisfies the octet rule. Is the central atom surrounded by four electron pairs? If not, it does not satisfy the octet rule. To satisfy the octet rule, convert one or two of the lone pairs on the terminal atoms into a double bond or a triple bond between the terminal atom and the central atom. These pairs are still associated with the terminal atom as well as with the central atom. Remember that carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur often form double and triple bonds.

Cal=

1000cal= Kcal.

liquid water is ---- times denser than water vapor at ---C

1250 times denser than water vapor at 25C and 1 atm of pressure

How many covalent bonds for group 17, 16, 15 14

17= 1 16= 2 15= 3 14= 4

Calculate the mass of 4 mols of water (H2O=18g)

18x4=72g

Electron Configuration

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, 8s.

CH3COCH2CH3

2-Butanone (methyl ethyl ketone)

Aldehydes sometimes have a common name like: ClCH2CHO

2-Chloroethanal

CH3COCH3

2-Propanone (acetone)

CH3CHClCHOHCH2CH2CH3 IUPAC name

2-chloro-3-hexanol

CH3CHOHCH2CH2CH3 IUPAC name

2-pentanol

Electrolysis of water

2H2O(l) -----Electrical Energy--> 2H2(g) + O2(g)

Spectator Ions example

2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)--->2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

Complete Ionic Equation example

2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + Cu+2(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) ---> 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)

Electrolysis of sea water

2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) ----electrical energy--> Cl2(g) + H2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)

Chemical Equation ex

2NaOH(aq) + CuCl2(aq)---->2NaCl(aq) + Cu(OH)2(aq)

Net Ionic Equation example

2OH-(aq) + Cu+2(aq)--->Cu(OH)2(s)

CH3CHClCHBrCH2CH2CH2 IUPAC name

3-Bromo-2-Chlorohexane

Electronegativity values are expressed in terms of numerical value of

3.98 or less

The normal amount of ozone to protect earth is

300 DU (300 Dobson Units)

Electromagnetic waves move in space in speed of light (All electromagnetic waves, including visible light, travel at a speed of)

3x10^8 m/s.

The relationship between Joule and calorie

4.184 J = 1 cal

How many atoms of carbon are in 1mol of C6H12O6

6

mole

6.02214076 × 10*23 is a convenient unit to use because of the great number of atoms, molecules, or others in any substance.

Through years of experimentation, it has been established that a mole of anything contains ----- representative particles

6.02x10^23

Planck's constant has a value of

6.626 × 1 0*-34 J·s.

Formula for lattice energy

= c(z+)(z-)/r c= sontant z= charge of ions r=inter-ionic distance

Calorimeters

A calorimeter is an insulated device used for measuring the amount of heat absorbed or released during a chemical or physical process.

A physical property

A characteristic of a pure substance that can be observed without changing it into another substance. is a characteristic of matter that can be observed or measured without changing the composition of the sample.

Balanced chemical equation

A chemical equation is a statement that uses chemical formulas to show the identities and relative amounts of the substances involved in a chemical reaction

A variable

A factor that can change in an experiment. is a quantity or condition that has more than one value.

A colloid

A mixture containing small, undissolved particles that do not settle out. is a heterogeneous mixture that has particles of sizes between 1nm to 1000nm in diameter and do not settle out.

A solution

A mixture that forms when one substance dissolves another. is a homogeneous mixture consisting of a solute dissolved into a solvent .

Coefficient

A number in front of a chemical formula in an equation that indicates how many molecules or atoms of each reactant and product are involved in a reaction. Coefficients are usually whole numbers and are not usually written if the value is one.

Cracking

A process in which heavier fractions are converted to gasoline by breaking their large molecules into smaller molecules.

Distillation

A process that separates the substances in a solution based on their boiling points is a physical separation technique that is based on the differences in the boiling points in the substances involves.

Redox reactions

A reaction in which electrons are transferred from one substance to another.

Replacement reaction

A reaction in which one element replaces another in a compound or when two elements in different compounds trade places. it divide into single(aka simple) and double substitutions.

nuclear reaction.

A reaction that involves a change in an atom's nucleus is called a nuclear reaction.

Unsaturated

A solution that contains less than the maximum amount of dissolved solute in a concentration. 1. Cyclic Alkenes 2. Cyclic Alkynes

A conclusion

A summary based on evidence or facts. is a judgment based on the information obtained.

A suspension

A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which solute-like particles settle out of a solvent-like phase some time after their introduction. is a mixture containing particles that settle out if left undisturbed.

Double substitution

AC + BD --> AD + BC involves an exchange of ions between two compounds. ex: NaOH+HCl = NaCl+H2O

Who discovered Photons?

Albert Einstein

Saturated in open chain

Alkanes C(n)H(2n+2)

Louis de Broglie

All moving objects have wave-like behavior. Matter shows properties of both wave and particles. Saw only odd number of wavelengths are allowed in a circular orbit . He also sat light's dual nature (particle and wave like) (in circular orbit divide total by 2 to get odd number)

Substituents group

All side branches are called Substituents group.

Alpha, Beta, Gamma Symbol Mass in AMU Mass in kg Charge

Alpha: 2He4 (mass number 2, atomic number 2)or α Beta: β Gamma: γ Mass amu 4 1/1840 0 Mass in kg 6.65x10*-27 9.11x10*-31 0 Charge 2+ 1- 0

Weak Acids

An acid that ionizes only partially in dilute aqueous solution

Ideal Gas (Kinetic Molecular Theory)

An ideal gas has the following 4 characteristics that are different from a real gas: 1) Gas molecules have zero volume. 2) Particles are at constant random motion. 3) Particles do not attract or repel- they exert no forces on each other. Therefore they can easily flow past each other. 4) Gas molecules make completely elastic collisions. 5) The average KE of gas molecules is directly proportional to the temperature of the gas.

Isotope

Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

how to know if a bond is ionic or covalent

By definition, an ionic bond is between a metal and a nonmetal, and a covalent bond is between 2 nonmetals.

Glucose

C6H12O6

Addition of water

CH2=CH2 + H2O —> CH2CH2OH ethene water ethanol

Halogenation RXN :

CH3CH3 + Cl2 —> CH3CH2Cl + HClethyne chlore chloroethane hydrogen chloride

Elimination of Hydrogen:

CH3CH3---> CH2=CH2 +H2 ethane --> ethane hydrogen

Methane

CH4

Applying Le Châtelier's Principle:

Changing the volume and pressure Changes in temperature Changes in concentration

Examples of colloid

Colloids are common in everyday life. Some examples include whipped cream, mayonnaise, milk, butter, gelatin, jelly, muddy water, plaster, colored glass, and paper. Every colloid consists of two parts: colloidal particles and the dispersing medium. fog, smoke, or a scattering of dust particles suspended in air.

What are some physical properties?

Color, texture, luster (the way light interacts with a surface), boiling point, freezing point, solubility, state of matter, mass, volume, density, and ability to conduct electricity.

Compounds vs Mixtures Components properties Components proportions Formation Components segregation

Components properties compounds: Its properties are different. Mixtures: Have the same properties Components proportions Compounds: Fixed Mixtures: May vary Formation Compounds: Chemical reaction Mixtures: Physical Means Components segregation Compounds: Chemical ways, such as electrolysis Mixtures: Physical ways, such as filtration

• Nucleic Acids:

DNA and RNA

The density of a liquid is higher than the density of a gas because

Density: The molecules of a liquid are packed relatively close together. Consequently, liquids are much denser than gases

Effusion

During effusion, a gas escapes through a tiny opening.

Formula for cell potential

E cell = E reduction - E oxidization E cell = overall standard cell potential E reduction= standard half cell potential for the reduction E oxidization= standard half cell potential for the oxidization

Balmer series

Electron transitions from higher-energy orbits to the second orbit account for all of hydrogen's visible lines (n=2)

--- can be used to show valence electrons of atoms.

Electron-dot diagram

Electrons are distributed ---- around the benzene ring which makes it ---

Electrons are distributed equally around the benzene ring which makes it exceptionally stable.

Metals

Elements that are generally shiny when smooth and clean, solid at room temperature, and good conductors of heat and electricity. Ex: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and transition metals.

CH3CH2NH2

Ethanamine or Ethylamine

CH3CH2OCH3

Ethyl methyl ether

Dissociation Equations for Weak Bases: Ethylamine Methylamine Ammonia Aniline Aniline

Ethylamine C2H5NH2(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ C2H5NH3 +(aq) + OH-(aq) Methylamine CH3NH2(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3NH3 +(aq) + OH-(aq) Ammonia NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4 +(aq) + OH-(aq) Aniline C6H5NH2(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ C6H5NH3 +(aq) + OH-(aq)

Who was the first to demonstrate that air exerted pressure?

Evangelista Torricelli he realized that the water pumps were unable to pump water higher than 10m he filled glass tube with one end of mercury he hypothesized the height of the column of water. While covering and end so that air could not enter he concluded that mercury is 14 times more dense than water

Steps after hypothesis

Experiments, conclusion

Physical properties are of two types

Extensive and intensive properties.

Fe 3+ and O2- ions form

F e 2 O 3, known as iron (III) oxide.

Numerical roman number Iron (III) chloride Iron (II) chloride Iron (II) oxide Iron (III) oxide

FeCl3 FeCl2 FeO Fe2O3 (refers to valence electrons)

Examples:Fe 2+ and O 2- ions form

FeO, known as iron (II) oxide.

What is the most electronegative element?

Fluorine (3.98)

Alcohol

General formula: R-OH functional group: hydroxyle

Charge of 1-

Group 17 F, Cl, Br, I

Halogens

Group 17 Like group 1 and 2 they are often part of compounds and are also highly reactive. Compounds made with the halogen fluorine (F) are commonly added to toothpaste and drinking water to prevent tooth decay Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine Astatine Ununseptium

Noble gases

Group 18 unreactive and are used in lasers, a variety of lightbulbs and neon signs.

Charge of 2+

Group 2 Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba

Representative Elements

Groups 1, 2, 13-18

Carbonic

H2CO3 (weak acid) ⇌ H+ +HCO3-

oxidizing reagent examples

H2O2 MnO4 CrO3 Cr2O7 OsO4

molar mass of water, methane, and ammonia

H2O= 18 g CH4= 16 g NH3= 17 g

Hydrosulfuric

H2S (weak acid) ⇌ H+ + HS-

HX (aq) +H2O(1) ⇌

H3O +(aq) + X- (aq) HX (aq) ---> Acid H2O(1) ---> base H3O +(aq) ---> Conjugate acid X- (aq) ---> Conjugate base

hydronium

H3O+

HF+H2O⇋

H3O+F-

Acetic

HC2H3O2 (weak acid)⇌ H+ + C 2H3O2-

Hydrochloric

HCl (Strong Acid) ---> H+ + Cl-

As an example of the Arrhenius model of acids and bases, consider what happens when hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water:

HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Strong acids

HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4 Acids that ionize completely when in an aqueous solution

Hypochlorous

HClO (weak acid) ⇌ H+ + CIO-

Perchloric

HClO4 (Strong Acid) ---> H+ CIO4-

Hydrofluoric

HF (weak acid) HF⇌ H+ + F-

Hydroiodic

HI (Strong Acid)----> H+ + I-

Nitrous acid

HNO2 is named Nitrous acid because the anion NO2 - is named nitrite

Nitric

HNO3 (Strong Acid) ---> H+ + NO3-

Exceptions of monatomic anions

HO- = hydroxide O22- = peroxide CN- = cyanide

Functional groups/ organic compounds

Halocarbon Alcohol Ether Amine Aldehyde Ketone carboxylic acid Ester Amide

All diatomic molecules (ALWAYS EXISTS AS 2 DOWN)

Have (hydrogen) No (Nitrogen) Fear (Fluorine) Of (Oxygen) Iced (Iodine) Cold (Chlorine) Beer (Bromine)

Name all the noble gases and their atomic number

Helium(He)= 2 Neon (Ne)= 10 Aragon (Aragon)= 18 Krypton (Kr) = 36 Xenon (Xe)= 54 Radon (Rn) = 86 Oganesson (Og)= 118

Difference between Homogenous and heterogeneous

Homogeneous mixtures cannot be separated, while heterogeneous mixtures can be separated.

Le Châtelier's principle

If a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system shifts in the direction that relieves the stress.

Photoelectrons

In the photoelectric effect, electrons, called photoelectrons, are emitted from a metal's surface when light of a certain frequency, or higher than a certain frequency, shines on the surface.

The more negative the lattice energy is the --- beacause

Inn a crystal lattice, each positive ion is surrounded by "negative" ions. The more "negative" the lattice energy is, the stronger is the force of attraction between the ions of an ionic compound.

Ether

It is an organic compound containing an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon atoms.

Ionic Bond

It is the electrostatic force that holds oppositely charged particles together in an ionic compound.

who discovered the electron?

JJ thomson

who discovered the neutron?

James Chadwick

Base ionization constant

Kb is the value of the equilibrium constant expression for the ionization of a base. It Has the Same Formula that of the Acid ionization Constant

What is the Chemical Equilibrium For C2H6<--- --->C2H4 + H2

Keq = ([C]c.[D]d)/([A]a[B]b) Keq = ([C2H4].[H2])/([C2H6])

Equilibrium constant

Keq, is the numerical value of the ratio of product concentrations to reactant concentrations, with each concentration raised to the power equal to its coefficient in the balanced equation.

What are stable energy systems in electrons in an atom?

Low-energy systems are more stable than high-energy systems, electrons in an atom tend to assume the arrangement that gives the atom the lowest energy possible.

Who discovered the kinetic molecular theory

Ludwig Boltzmann and James Maxwell

Density and ideal gas law

M=DRT/P

Mass is--- while weight

Mass is constant while weight differs due to the acceleration and height.

Molar mass and ideal gas law:

Mass per unit volume (ρ, g/L), and 22.4L/mol at STP. ρ * 22.4mol/L = g/mol PV=mRT/M

How many grams is needed to react with 24 mol Fe? (O = 16 g/mol)

Mass= mols of O2 x Molar mass = 32g O2/ 4mol O2 x 18 mole O2 = 576g O2

In ionic compounds melting and boiling points are --- because ---.

Melting point and boiling point are very high in ionic compounds because it's a very strong bond.

Phase Changes That Require Energy:

Melting, Vaporization, and Sublimation.

HCHO

Methanal(formaldehyde)

Some of the carboxylic acids have common names like:

Methanoic acid (Formic acid): HCOOH Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid): CH3COOH 2-chloroethanoicacid: ClCH3COOH

Example: CH3

Methyl

White light

Mixture of all the colors in the visible spectrum

Molarity

Moles of solute liter of solution

Diffusion

Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. is the mixing of gases or liquids resulting from their random motions.

Hydrazine

N2H4

Ammonia

NH3

ammonium

NH4+

Nitric oxide

NO

Sodium chloride

NaCl (table salt)

Salt

NaCl sodium chloride

Electrolytes such as

NaCl, MgCl2 and AlCl3 affect the colligative properties of a solution more than none- lectrolytes such as C6H12O6 and H2O.

Arrange the following in the order given below : Increasing covalent character of NaCl,MgCl2​,AlCl3​ is AlCl3​<MgCl2​<NaCl.

NaCl,MgCl2​,AlCl3​ is NaCl<MgCl2​<AlCl3​.

Famous theories:

Newton's Laws of Motion. Laws of Thermodynamics. Archimedes' Buoyancy Principle. Evolution and Natural Selection.

Amines

Organic compounds that Contain nitrogen atoms bonded to carbon atoms in aliphatic chains or aromatic rings.

Aromatic Compounds

Organic compounds that contain benzene rings as part of their structures.

HClO3 Oxyanion and acidic name

Oxyanion Chlorate acidic name (sudden -ic) Chloric acid

HClO2

Oxyanion Chlorite acidic name (sudden -ous) Chlorous acid

HNO3

Oxyanion Nitrate acidic name (sudden -ic) Nitric acid

HNO2

Oxyanion Nitrite acidic name (sudden -ous) Nitrous acid

Diffusion

Particles diffuse from an area of high concentration to one of low concentration.

Symmetric covalent molecules like--- are --- and dissolve in

Petroleum (CnH2n) and oil (C8H18) are non polar and dissolve in non polar substances

Polar gases do not obey --- because

Polar gases do not obey ideal gas behavior because of their great intermolecular attraction forces.

Find the formula for the ionic compound from potassium and oxygen.

Potassium and oxygen= K20 = 2(1+) + 1(2-) = 0

Keq > 1:

Products are favored at equilibrium.

Electron sea model

Proposes that all metal atoms in a metallic solid contribute their valence electrons to form a "sea" of electrons, and can explain properties of metallic solids such as malleability, conduction, and ductility.

CH3CH2CH2

Propyl

Difference between quantitive and qualitative data.

Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.

Ketone

R-C-R || O Carbonyl

Amine

R-NH2 functional group: Amino

Ether

R-O-R functional group: Ether

RNA vs DNA

RNA 1. Consists of one strand 2. Contains ribose sugar 3. Contain adenine (A), Contain adenine (A),uracil (U), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). DNA 1. Consist of two strands 2. Contain deoxyribose sugar 3. Contain thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G).

To compare between the diffusion of two gases

Rate A/Rate B = the square root of the molar mass of B over the molar mass of A.

Keq < 1

Reactants are favored at equilibrium.

4. Oxidation Reduction

Reactions: Oxidation of premier Alcohol: oxidation oxidation oxidationCH3OH —> HCHO —> HCOOH —> CO2 methanol methanal formic acid carbon dioxide Oxidation of secondary Alcohol : oxidationCH3CHOHCH3 —> CH3COCH3 2-propanol 2-propanone

Who discovered the charge and mass of an electron?

Robert Millikan using oil-drop experiment

Orbitals

S(1) P(3) D(5) F(7)

# of electrons

S(2) P(6) D(10) F(14)

What is δ used for?

The Greek letter delta (δ) is used to represent a partial charge. In a polar covalent bond, δ - represents a partial negative charge and δ + represents a partial positive charge. δ - and δ + can be added to a molecular model to indicate the polarity of the covalent bond. The more-electronegative atom is at the partially negative end, while the less-electronegative atom is at the partially positive end. The resulting polar bond often is referred to as a dipole (two poles). o Examples: H20, NH3, HF

electron configuration.

The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called the atom's electron configuration.

wave mechanical model or quantum mechanical mode

The atomic model in which electrons are treated as waves

Oxidation number

The charge of a monatomic ion, which is a one-atom ion, such as Mg2+.

formula unit

The chemical formula for an ionic compound, called a formula unit, represents the simplest ratio of the ions involved.

Bond length

The distance between the two bonded nuclei at the position of maximum attraction. oThe shorter the bond length, the stronger the bond. o As the number of shared electron pairs increases, the bond length decreases.

Products

The elements or compounds produced by a chemical reaction.

Chemical potential energy

The energy that is stored in a substance because of its composition is called chemical potential energy.

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. is the plan you plan to change during the experiment.

activation energy ( Ea ).

The minimum amount of energy that reacting particles must have to form the activated complex and lead to a reaction is called the activation energy ( Ea ).

Dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. is the variable that changes in response to a change in the independent variable.

End point

The point at which the indicator used in a titration changes color.

Stratosphere

The protective ozone layer is located in, the second layer, stratosphere (absorbs UV radiation)

The sign --- in an endothermic process is --- because --

The sign of q for an endothermic process is positive because the system is gaining heat.

The sign --- in an exothermic process is --- because --

The sign of q for an exothermic process is negative because the system is losing heat.

crystal lattice

The strong attractions among the positive ions and the negative ions in an ionic compound result in the formation of a crystal lattice which is a three-dimensional geometric arrangement of particles.

Oxidizing reagent

The substance that oxidizes another substance by accepting its electrons

Reducing reagent

The substance that reduces another substance by losing electrons

Heat

The symbol q is used to represent heat, which is energy that is in the process of flowing from a warmer object to a cooler object.

oxidation-number method

The technique that can be used to balance more difficult redox reactions, based on the fact that the number of electrons transferred from atoms must equal the number of electrons accepted by other atoms. The balancing technique that states that the total increase in oxidation numbers (oxidation) must equal the total decrease in oxidation numbers (reduction) of the atoms or ions involved in the reaction.

atomic orbital

The wave function predicts a three-dimensional region around the nucleus, called an atomic orbital.

Alkenes names are formed

Their names are formed by changing the -ane ending of the corresponding alkane to -ene.

N2

Triple covalent (stronger than n2 and o2)

2 Al(s) + 3Br2(g)

Two aluminum atoms and 6 bromine atoms are needed → 2AlBr3(s)

Ozone layer protects earth from harmful rays such as

Ultra Violet Rays.

Alkenes

Unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain one or more double covalent bonds between carbon atoms in a chain

Alkynes

Unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain one or more triple bonds between carbon atoms in a chain.

Heterogeneous equilibrium

When the reactants and products are present in more than one physical state.

The lewis model

a Lewis acid is an electron-pair acceptor and a Lewis base is an electron-pair donor Note that the Lewis model includes all substances classified as Bronsted lowery acids and bases and many more

skeleton equation

a chemical equation that does not indicate the relative amounts of reactants and products ex: Aluminium bromide Al(s) + Br2→ AlBr3(s) or Carbon disulfide (carbon and sulfur are metals at room temp) C(s) + S(s) → CS2(I) Tells us that carbon ran the solid state reacts with sulfur in the solid state to produce carbon disulfide in a liquid state.

Scientific Law

a concise statement that summarizes the results of many observations and experiments Summary of accepted facts of nature.

Quanta

a discrete quantity of energy proportional in magnitude to the frequency of the radiation it represents. specific amount of energy matter can gain or lose.

Hybridization

a process in which atomic orbitals are mixed to form new, identical hybrid orbitals

Dissociation

a process in which the dissolved ionic compounds in water separate to ions.

Compound

a pure substance made up of two or more different elements that are combined chemically.

Element

a pure substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by physical or chemical means.

The ions are packed into

a regular repeating pattern that balences the forces of attraction and repulsion between ions.

Substitutional alloys

a second element takes the place of a metal atom. Examples, sterling silver copper replace silver atoms

Crystallization

a separation technique that results in the formation of pure solid particles of a substance from a solution containing the dissolved substance. is a separation technique that results in the formation of pure solid particles of a substance from a solution containing the dissolved substance.

Principal energy level 1 consists of -- sublevel, principal energy level 2 consists of --, and principal energy level 3 consists of --, and so on.

a single two sublevels three sublevels

A line or a pair of vertical dots between the symbols of elements represents

a single covalent bond in a Lewis structure. For example, a hydrogen molecule is written as H—H or H:H.

Catalysts

a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed in the reaction.

Inhibitor

a substance that slows down reaction rates, or inhibits reactions. Some inhibitors prevent a reaction from happening at all.

Electrolytes

a substance that when dissolved in water will dissociate into positively charged and negatively charged ions, which have the ability to conduct electricity in solution.

Model

a visual, verbal, or mathematical explanation of experimental data.

In H20 pressure of 1 atm is --- the triple point

above (as you increase temp solid will become liquid, and then turn to gas)

Basic solutions have pH values

above 7.

During a chemical reaction energy is either

absorbed or released

CH3COOH

acetic acid a weak acid, will only partially dissociate, so it is a weak electrolyte. (covalent electrolyte, because molecule the molecule contains strictly covalent bonds, and unlike ionic solids that allow their inter-ionic attractions to dissipate in favor of solvation, these covalent species undergo an actual chemical reaction with the solvent molecules in solution to form charged products).

Lewis

acid: electron pair acceptor base: electron pair donor

Gamma rays are usually accompanied by

alpha, or beta radiation

Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation number of oxygen in compounds is

always -2 except in peroxides, such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) where it is -1. When it is bonded to fluorine, the only element more electronegative than oxygen, is positive. Ex: O in NO2 = -2 O in H202= -1

Acids

anything with hydrogen

NucleicAcids

are biological polymers made from nucleotides that consist of a nitrogen base, a phosphate group and a monosaccharide sugar group.

Nonmetals

are elements that are generally gases or brittle, dull-looking solids. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Ex: halogens, and noble gases.

Net Ionic Equation

are ionic equations that include only the particles that participate in the reaction.

Chlorofluorocarbons

are nontoxic, nonflammable chemicals containing atoms of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. They are used in the manufacture of aerosol sprays, blowing agents for foams and packing materials, as solvents, and as refrigerants.

Colligative properties

are physical properties of solutions that are affected by the number of particles but not by the identity of dissolved solute particles are called.

Primary batteries

are used only once, and it is not rechargeable like Carbon-Zinc cells, dry cells, and silver-oxide battery, and some alkaline batteries.

Gases and liquids are classified as

as fluids, yet liquids usually diffuse more slowly than gases at the same temperature, because intermolecular attractions interfere with the flow. Thus, liquids are less fluid than gases.

Rutherford's nuclear model

atom is composed of a dense positively charged nucleus that is surrounded by negative electrons. Alpha particles passing far from the nucleus are only slightly deflected, but the ones directly approaching the nucleus are deflected in large angles.

All that we observe about matter depends on

atoms and the changes they undergo.

Isobars

atoms for different elements similar in mass number. have the same mass number—that is, the same total number of protons and neutrons but differ in atomic number (number of protons)

metallic crystalline solids

atoms surrounded by valence electrons soft to hard low to very high melting points malleable and ductile excellent conductor all metallic elements

the device Torricelli invented is called a

barometer

Strong base

base that dissociates entirely into metal ions and hydroxide ions

Fuel Cells

batteries that the oxidized substance is from an external source.

Many ionic bonds are

binary

Two common types of acids exist-

binary acids and oxides

Line between liquid and gas

boiling point curve

Borates

boron containing anions

Chemistry is traditionally broken down into

branches that focus on specific areas, such as Organic chemistry, Inorganic chemistry and Physical chemistry.

Polymerization by addition occurs by-- Examples like --

breaking the double bond in the monomers and keeping all the monomer atoms. ethylene polymers, and propene polymer.

Positive ions move through the ---- to the---

bridge to the copper side

Examples of metallic alloys

bronze, cast iron, gold 10 carat, stainless silver, brass, pewter, phosphor bronze, amalgam, and steel.

sigma and pie bonds any element that reacts with

carbon

Carbonates

carbon and oxygen containing anions

Changes in concentration

change concentration = no more equilibrium increase conc. of reactants = makes more products decrease conc. of products = less reactants etc Adjusting the concentrations of either the reactants or the products puts a stress on the equilibrium.

Ketones are formally named by

changing the -e at the end of the alkane name to -one, and including a number before the name to indicate the position of the ketone group.

Aldehydes are formally named by

changing the final -e of the name of the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms to the suffix -al. If the compound contain branches, number the chain beginning with the carbon of the carbonyl group then apply the rule above

C2H6⇋C2H4 + H2+ΔH° State the change, equilibrium, amount of C2H4, amount of H2, and equilibrium constant.

check file

ΔH°+2NO⇋N2+O2 State the change, equilibrium, amount of N2, amount of NO, and equilibrium constant.

check file

Compounds can be broken down into simpler substances by --- means.

chemical

Most accurate equation is

chemical equation

industrial chemisty

chemical process in industry Ex. Paints

Synthesis reaction

chemical reaction in which two or more substances (A and B) react to produce a single product (AB). ex: 2Al+3S = Al2S3 CaO+H2O = Ca(OH)2

Examples of isobar

chlorine-37 and argon-37

Water molecules are attracted to each other ---- and silicon dioxide molecules in the glass are ---

cohesive adhesive

Water molecules have --- and --- properties

cohesive and adhesive

Net ionic equations are written from

complete ionic equations by removing all the spectator ions.

Surfactants

compounds that lower the surface tension of water

Air can be ---- and ----

compressed and expanded

p-Block elements

comprised of groups 13 through 18, contains elements with filled or partially filled p orbitals.

The partial pressured of gases at the same temperature are related to their

concentration

gas to liquid

condensation

The reaction of amino acids to produce protein is considered

condensation reaction.

The modern periodic table

consists of boxes, each containing an element name, symbol, atomic number, and atomic mass. The boxes are arranged in order of increasing atomic number into a series of columns, called groups or families (1-18), and rows, called periods (1-7).

Neon's atomic emission spectrum:

consists of several individual lines of color corresponding to the frequencies of the radiation emitted by the atoms of neon.

A Conjugate acid-base pair

consists of two substances related to each other by the donating and accepting of a single hydrogen ion.

Halides

contain fluoride, chloride, bromide, and iodide ions.

f-Block elements

contains inner transition metals (Lanthanides and actinides) filled or partially filled s orbital and filled or partially filled 4f and 5f

Acidic solution

contains more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions.

A Basic solution

contains more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions.

Alpha particle

contains two protons and two neutrons and has a 2+ charge

Table sugar is a

covalent solid

The strong attractions among positive and negative ions in an ionic compound result in the formation of

crystal lattice

the locations of particles in a crystalline solid can be represented as points on a framework called

crystal lattice

Some solids are ---- solids others are --.

crystalline not

Types of unit cells

cubic 90 degrees tetragonal 90 degrees orthorhombic 90 degrees triclinic 90 degrees hexagonal 120 degrees rhombohedral 90 degrees monoclinic 90 degrees all but one side

Substituted benzene compounds are named in the same way as For example,

cyclic alkanes. ethylbenzene has a 2-carbon ethyl group attached, and 1,4-dimethylbenzene, also known as para- xylene, has two methyl groups attached at positions 1 and 4.

Cycloalkanes

cyclic hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds.

Biochemistry

deals with the prcess of living organisms. Ex. Metabolism

Soaps and detergents -- the surface tension of water by ---

decrease disrupting the hydrogen bonds between water molecules.

Atomic radii generally --- as you move from left to right in a period and generally ---- as you move down a group.

decrease (left to right) increase (up to down)

Ionic radii generally --- as you move from left to right in a period and generally ---- as you move down a group.

decrease (left to right) increase (up to down)

For example, the ratio of an object's mass and volume, which are two extensive properties, is

density, which is an intensive property. (density is qualitative)

Secondary batteries

depend on reversible redox reactions, and its rechargeable like Lead Storage batteries (car batteries), Lithium ion batteries (mobile and laptop batteries).

Extensive properties

dependent on the amount of substance/matter present are dependent on the amount present in the substance like mass.

Weakest energy

depends on which on goes first in the electron configuration, whichever goes first has less energy

gas to solid

deposition

Cohesion

describes the force of attraction between identical molecules.

Adhesion

describes the force of attraction between molecules that are different.

The ideal gas law

describes the physical behavior of an ideal gas in terms of the pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles of gas present. PV = nRT

CH3CH2OCH2CH3

diethyl ether

The molal boiling point elevation constant, Kb , is the

difference in boiling points between a 1m non- volatile, nonelectrolyte solution and a pure solvent.

The properties of a compound are -- from those of its component elements.

different

CH3OCH3

dimethyl ether

P2O5

diphosphorus pentoxide

Energy and frequency are -- proportional with one another.

directly

Lattice energy is --- related to the size of the ions bonded.

directly

For nonelectrolytes, the value of the freezing point depression is

directly proportional to the solution's molality.

Lattice energy is --- to the size of the ions bonded.

directly related

In HCL what is dominating? Dispersion of dipole-dipole forces?

dispersion

In its solid state, ionic solids ---- conduct electricity

do not

Polar and non polar substance ---- mix

do not

In gases, kinetic energy can be transferred between colliding particles, but the total kinetic energy between two particles

does not change

Hydrogen bonds typically --- dispersion and dipole-dipole forces

dominate

Hydrogen fluoride -- a ---to a water molecule, so hydrogen fluoride is --

donates hydrogen ion an acid.

O2

double covalent (stronger than o2 weaker than n2)

D orbitals are -- shaped, but they

double dumbbell lie in different planes.

Reactions that occur in aqueous solutions are

double replacement reactions.

All p orbitals are -- shaped and are oriented along the three ---

dumbbell perpendicular x, y, and z axes.

In a crystal lattice

each positive ion is surrounded by negative ions, and each negative ion is surrounded by positive ones.

Many of Greek philosopher believed that matter was composed of things such as

earth, water, air, and fire.

A neutral solution contains

equal concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.

Nuclear equation

equation that shows the atomic numbers and mass numbers of particles involved, mass number is conserved in nuclear equations.

Theoretical chemistry

evelops theoretical generalizations that are part of the theoretical arsenal of modern chemistry EX. chemical bonding

Reactants leftover when a reaction stops are

excess reactants.

Observations

existing knowledge, qualitative data, quantitative data

if the reaction is negative the reaction is said to be

exothermic and is written in the products.

Separating a compound into its elements often requires ----, such as -- or --.

external energy heat electricity

Check files

files

When naming ethers that have two identical alkyl chains bonded to oxygen,

first name the alkyl group and then add the word ether.

General exceptions to the octet rule include

first period elements as they only have 2 valence electrons.

Inorganic chemistry

focuces on compounds that don't contain carbon. Ex. Sand

polymer chemistry

focuses on the chemical synthesis, structure, and chemical and physical properties of polymers and macromolecules. chemical interactions Ex. Textiles

In the course of an endothermic process, the system

gains heat from the surroundings and so the temperature of the surroundings decreases. The quantity of heat for a process is represented by the letter q.

Batteries

galvanic cells that use spontaneous redox reactions to produce electrical energy, and they are of two types: primary batteries and secondary batteries.

At the same temperature

gases, liquids, and solids have equal kinetic energy

Example of Structural Isomers:

glucose and fructose (Pentane) (2-methylbutane) (2,2-Geometric isomer too.

Two forces acting on mercury

gravity pulling in down and air pressure pulling it up

Ionic formed from attraction of ions with larger positive or negative energy charges generally has

greater lattice energy

s-Block elements

group 1 has partially filled s blocks (s*1) group 2 has filled s blocks (s*2) consists of groups 1 and 2, and the element helium.

Charge of 3+

group 13 B, Al, Ga, In, Ti

atomic crystalline solids

group 18 noble gases. Soft to very soft; very low melting points; poor electrical conductors.

d-Block elements

group 3-12 contains the transition metals and is the largest of the blocks. has a completely filled s orbital and a partially or completely filled d orbital

Atoms in the same group have ----- because

have similar chemical properties because they have the same number of valence electrons.

The formal name is formed by changing

he -ane of the parent alkane to -anoic acid. If the compound contain branches, number the chain beginning with the carbon of the carboxyl group then apply the rule above.

Different metallic alloy properties can result based on

heating and cooling

Group 18 metals have --- ionization energy

high

Water has a -- surface tension because ---

high its molecules can form multiple hydrogen bonds.

The increase in ionization energy shows that atoms

hold onto their inner cores much more strongly then they do with valence electrons.

Atomic size is defined by

how closely an atom lies to a neighboring atom

Sigma orbitals are made from

hybridized orbitals (sp3 for the 4 sides)

In a chemical reaction using combustion in the reaction it is usually a ------ plus ---- and the product is ----- and ---. (you have to make it balanced as using this only makes it unbalanced)

hydrocarbon + O2 product of CO2 + H2O

Alphatic hydrocarbon

hydrocarbon consisting of a linear chain of carbon atoms

When dissolved in water hydrogen chloride becomes

hydrochloric acid, which is a strong acid.

A binary acid contains

hydrogen and one other element.

One type of dipole-dipole attraction is

hydrogen bond

All water solutions contain

hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-).

(g)

identifies a gaseous state

(I)

identifies a liquid state

(s)

identifies a solid state

(aq)

identifies a water solution

Hess's law states that

if you can add two or more thermochemical equations to produce a final equation for a reaction, then the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual reactions is the enthalpy change for the final reaction.

Subscripts

in the lower right of a symbol, represent the number of ions of each element in an ionic compound.

1. Substitution reactions:

in which an atom, or a group of atoms, replace another atom, or group of atoms.

5. Condensation Reactions (dehydration)

in which two molecules or moieties (functional groups) combine to form a larger molecule, together with the loss of a small molecule. eg. RCOOH + ROH <—> RCOOR + H2O organic acid alcohol either water

3. Addition Reactions:

in which two substituents are added to a molecule.

2. Elimination Reactions:

in which two substituents are removed from a molecule in either a one or two-step mechanism.

Liquids are

incompressible

Trends in first ionization energies--- as you move from left to right in a period and generally ---- as you move down a group.

increase (left to right) decrease (up to down)

As you increase the pressure the density

increases

The viscosity of a fluids decreases as its temperature

increases

electronegativity

indicates the relative ability of its atoms to attract electrons in a chemical bond.

Quantitive data

information about quantities, and therefore numbers

Qualitative data

information that describes color, odor, shape, or some other physical characteristic.

Manometer

instrument to measure gas pressure in a closed container

Higher density of liquids is due to

intermolecular forces

Wavelength and frequency are -- proportionate with one another.

inversely

Surface area is a measure of the

inward pull by particles in there interior

Table salt is an

ionic solid

Weak base

ionizes only partially in dilute aqueous solution.

Polyatomic ions

ions that are made of more than one atom

Spectator Ions

ions that do not participate in the reaction, and they don't appear in the net ionic equation.

The example of two Isotopes and Isobars

iron and nickel. Both have the same mass number which is 58 whereas the atomic number of iron is 26, and the atomic number of nickel is 28.

A physical change

is a change that changes the substance without changing its composition like cutting a sheet of paper, melting, or freezing.

Reversible reaction

is a chemical reaction that can occur in both the forward and the reverse directions.

A mixture

is a combination of two or more pure substances in which each pure substance retains its individual chemical properties.

Resonance

is a condition that occurs when more than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a molecule or ion.

A liquid

is a form of matter that flows, has constant volume, and takes the shape of the container.

A gas

is a form of matter that not only takes the shape of the container, but also fills the entire volume of the container.

Vapor

is a gaseous state of a substance that is solid or liquid in room temperature.

Gamma ray

is a high energy radiation that possess no mass and are neutral meaning they are not deflected.

A solution

is a homogenous mixture from two or more substances.

Photon

is a massless particle that carries a quantum of energy.

Viscosity

is a measure of the resistance of a liquid to flow.

Titration

is a method for determining the concentration of a solution by reacting a known volume of that solution with a solution of known concentration.

A homogenous mixture

is a mixture that has constant composition throughout; it always has a single phase.

Salt Bridge

is a pathway to maintain solution neutrality by allowing the passage of ions from side to another.

A chemical change

is a process that involves one or more substances changing into new ones like burning and rusting.

Neutralization reaction

is a reaction in which an acid and a base in an aqueous solution react to produce a salt and water.

Scientific law

is a relationship in nature that is supported by many experiments.

An experiment

is a set of controlled observations that test the hypothesis.

amorphous

is a solid that lacks the long-range order characteristic of a crystal. examples of amorphous: glass, plastic, rubber, etc... (shapeless)

crystalline solid

is a solid whose atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in an orderly, geometric structure.

Aqueous Solution

is a solution in which the solvent is water.

Chemical equilibrium

is a state in which the forward and reverse reactions balance each other because they take place at equal rates.

Filtration

is a technique that uses a porous barrier to separate a solid from a liquid.

The law of definite proportions states that a compound

is always composed of the same elements in the same proportion by mass, no matter how large or small the sample.

Alkyl group

is an Alkane missing one hydrogen.

ion

is an atom or a bonded group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge.

Galvanic Cell

is an electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy to electrical energy through redox reactions.

Electrolytic Cell

is an electrochemical cell that converts electrical energy to chemical energy.

Beta particle

is an electron with a 1- charge

A theory

is an explanation of natural phenomenon based on many observations and investigations over time.

Barometer

is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Complete Ionic Equation

is an ionic equation that shows all the particle in a solution as they exist, and ionic compounds are written as ions in the equation.

Aryl halide Ar-X:

is an organic compound containing a halogen atom bonded to a benzene ring or other aromatic group.

Alkyl halide R-X:

is an organic compound containing a halogen atom covalently bonded to an aliphatic carbon atom.

Plasma

is another state of matter that is present in places with very high temperatures.

A stress

is any kind of change in a system at equilibrium that upsets the equilibrium.

Organic compounds

is applied to all carbon-containing compounds with the primary exceptions of carbon oxides, carbides, and carbonates, which are considered inorganic.

Cathode ray

is originating from the cathode and traveling to the anode.

A chemical property

is the ability or inability of a substance to combine with or change into one or more other substances.

Energy

is the ability to do work or produce heat.

Actual yield

is the amount of product produced when the chemical reaction is carried out in an experiment.

Metallic Bonds

is the attraction of a metallic cation for delocalized electrons, which are free to move electrons.

Reaction rate of a chemical reaction

is the change in concentration of a reactant or product per unit of time.

Osmosis

is the diffusion of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane.

Anode

is the electrode in which oxidation occurs.

Cathode

is the electrode in which reduction occurs.

Surface tension

is the energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid by a given amount

lattice energy

is the energy required to separate 1 mol of the ions of an ionic compound.

Sublimation

is the process during which a solid changes into vapor without melting.

Standard half-cell potential

is the produced potential difference when a half-cell is connected to a hydrogen half-cell under standard conditions.

The wavelength of a particle

is the ratio of Planck's constant and the product of the particle's mass and its velocity.

cell potential (Ecell)

is the standard potential of the reduction half-cell minus the standard potential of the oxidation half-cell.

Nuclear chemistry

is the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties.

When an external force that is strong enough to overcome the attractive forces holding the ion is applied to crystals

it breaks apart because the applied force repositions the like charged ions next to each other, resulting in a repulsive force that breaks them +- +-

Methane is weak because

it is non polar and uses weak dispersion forces

Nonpolar covalent bond (or pure covalent)

it means that electrons in bonds between identical atoms have an electronegativity difference of zero—meaning that the electrons are equally shared between the two atoms.

Covalent bond

it's a chemical bond that results from sharing valence electrons.

Ion

it's an atom or a particle that has a positive (cation) or a negative (anion) charge.

The molar mass of any element is numerically equal to

its atomic mass and has the units g/mol.

The heat required to melt one mole of a solid substance is called

its molar enthalpy (heat) of fusion.

The heat required to vaporize one mole of a liquid is called

its molar enthalpy (heat) of vaporization

Primary fact in determining an atom's stability is

its neutron to proton ratio.

The charge of a monatomic ion is equal to

its oxidation number

You can determine an atom's electron configuration and its number of valence electrons from

its position on the periodic table.

Polymers

large molecules that consist of bonded smaller molecules called monomers.

The strength of the forces holding ions in place is reflected by

lattice energy

chemical equations must show

law of conservation of mass

Atoms in large ionization energy values are --- likely to form positive ions.

less

limiting reactants

limits the extent of the reaction and, thereby, determines the amount of product formed.

Molecular shapes

linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal, bent, trigonal bipyramidal, octa hedral

critical point

located beyond the pressure and temperature

Percent by mass

mass of element/mass of compound x 100

Concentration description: Percent by mass=

mass of solute x 100 mass of solution

environmental chemistry

matter and the environment Ex. Pollution

Max Plank stated a conclusion:

matter can gain or lose energy is small specific amount called quanta

Substance

matter that has a definite and uniform composition.

Elements are classified as

metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.

silicates

minerals that contain an anion that is a combination of silicon and oxygen and usually one or more other elements

Alloy

mixture of elements with metallic properties

• Reaction rate is expressed as

mol/(L · s).

Mole fraction

mole of solute moles of solute + moles of solvent

F-Orbitals have what shape?

no unique shape

Moles (n)=

no. of particles/ Avogadro's number (6.02 x 10*23)

EN = 0

non polar covalent

if the calculated cell potential is negative then the reaction is

non-spontaneous

There is three types of covalent bonds

o Single bond:when one electron gets shared. o Double bond: when two electron get shared. o Triple bond: when three electrons get shared.

Solubility product constant:

o The equilibrium constant expression for the dissolving of a sparingly soluble compound o Ksp o The solubility product constant expression is the product of the concentrations of the dissolved ions, each rose to the power equal to the coefficient of the ion in the chemical equation.

Naming branched and Cyclo-alkenes:

o When naming branched -chain alkenes, follow the IUPAC rules for naming branched- chain alkanes, but with some exceptions. o To name alkenes with four or more carbons in the chain, it is necessary to specify the location of the double bond. This is done by numbering the carbons in the parent chain, starting at the end of the chain that will give the first carbon in the double bond the lowest number. Then, use only that number in the name. It is important to recognize that 1-butene and 2-butene are two different substances, each with its own properties. o Cyclic alkenes are named in much the same way as cyclic alkanes; however, carbon number 1 must be one of the carbons connected by the double bond. o Some unsaturated hydrocarbons contain more than one double (ortriple) bond. The number of double bonds in such molecules is shown by using a prefix (di-, tri-, tetra-, and so on) before the suffix -ene.

determine what got oxidized ,what got reduced, oxidizing reagent, and reducing reagent: 2H2+O2 = 2H2O

o answer:the substance that got oxidized is Hydrogen (it lost electrons and increased the oxidation number) and it is the reducing reagent o the substance that got reduced is Oxygen(it gained electrons and decreased the oxidation number) and it is the oxidizing reagent

atomic mass unit (amu)

one twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom

An applied research

one undertaken to solve a specific problem.

If *ionic bonds* occur between *metals* and the *nonmetal oxygen*, ____________ form.

oxides

The half-cell potential become negative if it

oxidizes when connected to the hydrogen standard half- cell potential

The relationship between both the pH and pOH is that:

pH + pOH = 14.00

pH

pH = -log [H+] The pH of a solution equals the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. [H+] = 10-ph

analytical chemistry

parts and compostiiion of matterEx. Quality control

Polar molecules contain ---- dipoles like

permanent dipoles like H2O

The main two resources for hydrocarbons are

petroleum and natural gas

proteins

polymers are biological organic compounds that consist of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.

CO2 melting point has a --- slope

positive

Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation number of groups 1 and 2 metals and aluminum are

positive and equal to their number of valence electrons. K = +1 Ca= +2= +3 Al

ionic crystalline solid

positive and negative ions; electrostatic attractions; hard, brittle high melting point, poor conductor NaCl, KBr, CaCO3

Equation for calculating heat

q = c × m × ΔT

Concentration can be described

qualitatively as diluted or concentrated.

Bohr assigned a number, n, called a ---- , to each orbit.

quantum number

alpha radiation

radiation that was deflected toward the negatively charged plate

Beta radiation

radiation that was deflected toward the positively charged plate

Graham's Law of Diffusion

rate1/rate2 = sqrt(molar mass2/molar mass1) heavier particles diffuse slower note when solving u have to put b first also if 0=15.99 and questions states o2 then multiply 15.99 with 2

When white light passes through a prism, it is separated into a continuous spectrum of its different components—

red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet light. (highest frequency -- lowest) (lowest wavelength -- highest)

H+ ions and H2O molecules are added to

redox reaction in the acidic medium.

OH- ions and H2O molecules are added to

redox reaction in the basic medium.

Half-cell potential become positive if it

reduces when connected to the hydrogen standard cell potential.

A pi bond

represented by the Greek letter pi (π), forms when parallel orbitals overlap and share electrons.

In any atom with two or more electrons, the repulsion between the electrons makes energies of subshells with different values of ll differ so that the energy of the orbitals increases within a shell in the order

s < p < d < f.

Quantum

s the minimum amount of energy that can be gained or lost by an atom.

Most other ionic compounds are called

salts

Open chains can be

saturated and unsaturated

An arrow is used to

separate the reactants from the products arrow = yield/react to

+

separates two or more reactants or products

Atoms in nonionic compounds

share electrons. (resulting in covalent bonds)

One third of minerals are

silicates

Empirical formula

simplest numerical ratio between the atoms of the molecule. ethane (CH3)

F2

single covalent (weaker than o2 and n2)

The size of the carbohydrate molecule ranges from

single monomer to polymers that consist of hundreds or thousands of monomers.

In the structure of NaCl, each sodium ion is surrounded by --- chlorine ions

six

White light is a

small fraction of the full electromagnetic spectrum.

Atom

smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of the element.

The name for NaOH is

sodium hydroxide.

At 1 atm in a co2

solid immediately sublimes

Matter can be found in the

solid, liquid, gaseous, or in plasma state.

covalent network solids (state definition and example)

solids in which the units that make up the three-dimensional network are joined by covalent bonds. They are brittle, and non conductors and are extremely hard. Example diamond and quartz.

What is a solute and solvent?

solvent- larger in amount; dissolves the other substance -Solute: =The substance that dissolves in a solvent

Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun causes

some oxygen gas ( O 2 ) to break into individual particles of oxygen (O). These individual particles combine with oxygen gas ( O 2 ) to form ozone ( O 3 ).

activated complex

sometimes called a transition state, is a temporary, unstable arrangement of atoms in which old bonds are breaking and new bonds are forming.

All s orbitals are --, and their size -- with increasing principal quantum number.

spherical increases

The conditions of 0.00°C and 1.00 atm are known as

standard temperature and pressure (STP).

Pauli Exclusion Principle

states that a maximum of two electrons can occupy a single atomic orbital, but only if the electrons have opposite spins.

Law of chemical equilibrium

states that at a given temperature, a chemical system might reach a state in which a particular ratio of reactant and product concentrations has a constant value. aA + bB ⇋ cC + dD

Collision theory

states that atoms, ions, and molecules must collide in order to react.

Gay-Lussac's law

states that the pressure of a fixed amount of gas varies directly with the Kelvin temperature when the volume remains constant. P1/T1 = P2/T2

Boyle's law

states that the volume of a fixed amount of gas held at a constant temperature varies inversely with the pressure. P1*V1 = P2*V2

Charles's law

states that the volume of a given amount of gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature at constant pressure. V1/T1= V2/T2

Law of multiple proportions

states that when different compounds are formed by a combination of the same elements, different masses of one element combine with the same fixed mass of the other element in a ratio of small whole numbers.

The combined gas law

states the relationships between pressure, temperature, and volume of a fixed amount of gas. P1*V1/T1 = P2*V2/T2

The covalent bond between atoms in a molecule is --- but the attraction forces between molecules are ---

strong weak (weak forced is known as intermolecular or van Der Waals force)

Chemistry

study of matter and the changes that it undergoes.

Proton

subatomic particle carrying a charge equal to but opposite that of an electron. Its mass is equal to 1840 of electrons mass.

Neutron

subatomic particle that has a mass nearly equal to that of a proton, but it carries no electric charge.

solid to gas

sublimation

if you decrease the pressure below the triple point when you heat up the solid it will

sublime directly into gas

but at standard pressure it's below the triple point so that's why co2

sublimes

Amphoteric

substances that can act as both acids and bases

To find valence electrons

subtract 10 from group number

What is an example of a result of bonding glucose and fructose

sucrose

Disaccharides example

sucrose, lactose, maltose are the result of the bonding of two monosaccharides molecules. For example sucrose.

supercritical liquid

supercritical fluid is a fluid that has properties of a gas and the liquid it's not exactly a gas and is not exactly a liquid but it's in between the two like a gas it has a lower density than a liquid but like a liquid it can dissolve

Air pressure is greater in --- than --- because--

surface levels than it is in high levels because gravity is greater at the surface and higher. However sea level has mor(one kilo per square cm) because it has less altitudes.

Binary means

that they contain only two different elements. Binary ionic compounds have a metallic cation and a nonmetallic anion.

Catalysts does not affect

the Equilibrium state nor the Equilibrium constant

In an absorption spectrum:

the absorbed frequencies appear as black lines. The black lines correspond to certain frequencies absorbed by an element.

Observation

the act of gathering information.

The water rises along the inner walls of the cylinder. because

the adhesive forces between water molecules and the silicon dioxide in glass are greater than the cohesive forces between water molecules

Calorie(Cal)

the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of pure water by one degree Celsius (1°C) is defined as a calorie.

As n increases, the orbital becomes larger, the electron spends more time farther from the nucleus, and the atom's energy increases. Therefore, n specifies

the atom's major energy levels.

Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation of a monatomic ion is equal to

the charge of the ion. Ex: Ca2+ = +2 Br-= -1

Rules for determining the oxidation number: The sum of oxidation numbers of the atoms in a polyatomic ion is equal to is

the charge of the ion. SO3*2- = (+4) + 3(-2) = -2

A solution's freezing point depression, ΔTf , is

the difference in temperature between its freezing point and the freezing point of its pure solvent.

Chemical equations are not mathematical equations instead they show

the direction in which the reaction progresses

As the number of ions produced by an electrolyte increases,

the effect on the solution colligative properties increases ( AlCl3 > MgCl2 > NaCl ).

The change in enthalpy for a reaction is called

the enthalpy (heat) of reaction (Δ H rxn ).

Changing the volume and pressure of an equilibrium system shifts

the equilibrium only if the number of moles of gaseous reactants is different from the number of moles of gaseous products. o Increasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium to the right and increases the amount of product. o If the number of moles of gas is the same on both sides of the equation, changes in volume and pressure have no effect on the equilibrium.

In general, the greater the charge

the greater the electrostatic attraction, the stronger the ionic bond, the higher the melting point.

If the two alkyl groups are different

the groups are listed in alphabetical order and then followed by the word ether.

Bohr proposed that

the hydrogen atom has only certain allowable energy states.

If the acid were in an aqueous solution

the hydrogen ions are not present. Instead they are joined with the surrounding H2O molecules to form Hydronium ions H3O+

Most real gases deviate from

the ideal gas behavior at high pressure and low temperatures.

Ideal gas obeys

the kinetic molecular theory.

Periodic law:

the law that states that the repeating chemical and physical properties of elements change periodically with the atomic numbers of the elements. Founded by Moseley

Lattice in lithium compound is greater than that of a potassium compound containing the same anion because

the lithium ion is smaller than the potassium ion.

The smaller the electron's orbit,

the lower the atom's energy state, or energy level.

The greater the number of solute particles in a solvent,

the lower the resulting vapor pressure.

Principal energy level.

the major energy levels of an atom

Molar mass

the mass in grams of one mol of any pure substance.

Theoretical yield is

the maximum amount of product that can be produced from a given amount of reactant.

Polymerization by condensation occurs when-- examples like

the monomer contains two functional groups that react together with a loss of smaller molecule like water. Examples like Nylon.

The bigger the non-polar gas particle is

the more it will deviate from the ideal gas behavior.

The partial pressure of a gas depends on

the number of moles of gas, the size of the container, and the temperature of the mixture. It does not depend on the identity of the gas.

Molarity

the number of moles of solute per liter of solution

The coefficients in chemical formulas indicate

the number of mols.

vapor pressure lowering is due to

the number of solute particles in solution.

As n increases,

the orbital becomes larger, the electron spends more time farther from the nucleus, and the atom's energy increases.

triple point

the point on a phase diagram that represents the only set of conditions at which all three phases exist in equilibrium with one another

Structural formula

the position of each atom in the molecule. ethane (CH3CH3)

osmotic pressure

the pressure that would have to be applied to a pure solvent to prevent it from passing into a given solution by osmosis, often used to express the concentration of the solution.

The shapes of atomic orbitals describe

the probable distribution of electrons in energy sublevels.

Chemical reaction

the process by which one or more substances change to produce one or more different substances

The energy of a photon is given by

the product of Planck's constant and the frequency. E photon = hν H:isPlanck'sconstant. V:representsfrequency. E:photon represents energy.

The energy of a quantum is given by

the product of Planck's constant and the frequency. E quantum = hν

The speed of light in a vacuum is equal to

the product of the wavelength and the frequency.

Graham's law of effusion states that

the rate of effusion for a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass. R2/R1 = square root of M1/M2

Percent yield of a product is

the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield expressed as a percent.

Molecular formula

the real numerical ratio between the atoms of the molecule. ethane (C2H6)

Rate law expresses

the relationship between the rate of a chemical reaction and the concentration of reactants at a given temperature. Where R: Reaction Rate, [A]: The concentration of a reactant, k: a constant, n: the reaction order. R= k[A]*n

Negative ions move through the ---- to the---

the salt bridge to the zinc side

Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation number of the more-electronegative atoms in a molecule or a complex ion is

the same as the charge it would have If it were an ion. Ex: N in NH3= -3 O in NO= -2

The oxidation number of a monatomic (composed of one atom) ion is

the same as the charge of the ion. For example, the oxidation numbers of K+, Se2−, and Au3+ are +1, −2, and +3, respectively.

As the principal quantum number, n, increases,

the size of the orbital increases and the electrons spend more time farther from the nucleus.

f Qsp = Ksp,

the solution is saturated, and no change will occur.

If Qsp < Ksp

the solution is unsaturated. No precipitate will form.

A control

the standard by which the test results can be compared is standard for comparison.

The greater the extent to which a substance dissociates (greater ionization)

the stronger an electrolyte it is

When naming amines, the -N H 2 (amino) group is indicated by

the suffix -amine. If one amino group is present, the -e of the root hydrocarbon is dropped and replaced by -amine. When necessary, the position of the amino group is designated by a number. If more than one amino group is present, the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, and so on are used to indicate the number of groups.

The mass of the compound is equal to

the sum of the masses of the ele- ments that make up the compound.

The oxidation number in a polyatomic ion is

the sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms is equal to the overall charge on the ion.

Dalton's law of partial pressures states that

the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all the gases in the mixture. P total = P 1 + P 2 + P 3 + . . . P n.

The viscosity of a liquid is determined by

the type of intermolecular forces in the liquid, the size and shape of the particles, and the temperature.

The octet rule is useful for determining

the type of ions likely to form.

The molar volume of a gas is

the volume that 1 mol occupies at 0.00°C and 1.00 atm pressure.

Atomic mass

the weighted average mass of the isotopes of that element.

The physical structures of ionic compounds contribute to

their physical properties.

If the calculated cell potential is positive

then the reaction is spontaneous

Sulfite ite = at 3 because

they both are in the same group

Gas particles exert pressure when

they collide with the walls of their container.

Because polar molecules are dipoles with partially charges ends,

they have uneven electron density, this is what causes a tendency to align with the electric field.

Ionic compounds can conduct electricity if

they were in a solution or a molten form.

The wave function predicts a

three-dimensional region around the nucleus, called an atomic orbital, which describes the electron's probable location.

When iron got hotter and colors changed different colors corresponded ---

to different frequencies and wavelengths

kinetic means in greek translates to

to move

Sublimation can be used

to separate two solids in a mixture when one of them sublimates without the other.

One safety rule in lab is

to wear goggles, lab coat and gloves, and not to wear contact lenses or lose clothes.

BeCl2

total pairs 2 Shared pairs 2 lone pairs 0 hybrid orbitals sp Molecular shape Linear (180)

AlCl3

total pairs 3 Shared pairs 3 lone pairs 0 hybrid orbitals sp3 Molecular shape trigonal planar (120)

H2O

total pairs 4 Shared pairs 2 lone pairs 2 hybrid orbitals SP3 Molecular shape Bent (104.50

NH3

total pairs 4 Shared pairs 3 lone pairs 1 hybrid orbitals sp3 Molecular shape trigonal pyramidal (107.3)

CH4

total pairs 4 Shared pairs 4 lone pairs 0 hybrid orbitals sp3 Molecular shape Tetrahedral (109.5)

NbBr5

total pairs 5 Shared pairs 5 lone pairs 0 hybrid orbitals sp3d Molecular shape trigonal bipyramidal (120, 90)

SF6

total pairs 6 Shared pairs 6 lone pairs 0 hybrid orbitals sp3d2 Molecular shape Octahedral (90, 90)

Transition elements are divided into

transition metals and inner transition metals

Earth's atmosphere consists of several layers:

troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.

Some d orbitals have their own unique shape T of F

true bu they are still double dumbbell

There can be -- electrons in one orbital maximum.

two

The galvanic cell consists of

two half-cells. In one half-cell oxidation occurs, and the other half-cell reduction occurs.

Visible light

type of electromagnetic radiation which is a form of energy that exhibits wavelike behavior as it travels through space.

Radioactive decay

unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation in a spontaneous process

Group number =

valence electrons (or the last electrons they lead for you if the question provides you with noble gas electron configuration)

Percent by volume

volume of solute. x 100 volume of solution

The surface tension of the water allows spiders to

walk on the surface of the water.

Common name and molecular compound name of H20 NH3 N2H4 HCL C9H804

water dihyrogen monoxide ammonia nitrogen trihydride hydrazine dinitorgen tetrahydride muriatic acid hydrochloric acid aspirin 1-(acetyloxyle)benzoic acid

Asymmetric covalent molecules like--- are --- and dissolve in

water (H2O) are polar

If a substance only partially ionizes in solution, meaning some particles dissociate and some do not, this will be called a

weak electrolyte

all intermolecular forces are ---- than intramolecular forces involved in bonding

weaker

Decomposition reaction

when a single compound breaks down into two or more elements or new compounds. ex:2Al2O3 = 4Al+3O2

Rules for determining the oxidation number: The oxidation of an atom of an uncombined element is

zero Ex: Na, O2, Cl2, H2

The oxidation number of an atom in a neutral free element is

zero For example, the oxidation number of each atom in Fe, Li, N2, Ar, and P4 is zero.

Rules for determining the oxidation number: The sum of oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is

zero. CaBr2 = (+2) + 2(-1)= 0

1. John Newlands (1837-1898)

• arranged elements by increasing atomic mass. • noticed the repetition of properties every eighth element. • created the law of octaves.

2. Lothar Meyer(1830-1895)

• demonstrated a connection between atomic mass and elements' properties. • arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass.

3. Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)

• demonstrated a connection between atomic mass and elements' properties. • arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass. • predicted the existence and properties of undiscovered elements.

Henry Moseley (1887-1915)

• discovered that atoms contain a unique number of protons called the atomic number. • arranged elements in order of increasing atomic number, which resulted in a periodic pattern of properties.

H2 (g) + Cl2(g)

→ 2HCl (g)


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