Child Development
Based on the research performed on eminent professionals who attain exceptional achievement, you would NOT expect someone receiving the Nobel Prize to say,
"My success is a demonstration of the ease with which innate talent wins out."
short-term memory
"working memory;" the active stage of memory in which information is stored for up to about 20 seconds
bayley scales
(infant and toddler development) is suitable for children between 1 month and 3 1/2 years. the most recent edition, the bayley-III, has three main subsets. two additional bayley scales depend on parental report
IQ formula
(mental age/chronological age) x 100
The average correlation between IQ score and brain volume is approximately
+.35
Correlations measuring the reliability of IQ tests generally are in the range of
+.90s.
Factors Related to Resilience
-personal characteristics - easy temperament, mastery orientation -warm parental relationship -supportive adult outside family -community resources
Theorists agree mostly on 4 basic emotions, which are:
1. Happiness 2. Fear 3. Anger 4. Sadness
Criteria to Pass Object Permanence
1. Out of sight does not equal out of mind 2. Object will be where you last saw it
WIPSI
2.5-7 years & 3 months.
early adulthood
25 years --> 40 years
middle adulthood
40 years --> 65 years
At what age do infants demonstrate use of Social Referencing?
8 to 12 months.
Problem Centered Coping
A general strategy for managing emotion in which the individual appraises the situation as changeable, identifies the difficulty, and decides what to do about it.
Emotion Centered Coping
A general strategy for managing emotion that is internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done to change an outcome.
Behavioural Inhibition
A temperamentally based style of responding characterized by the tendency to be particularly fearful and restrained when dealing with novel or stressful situations
Numbers for above average IQ scores
Above 115; above 120 signifies superior or gifted (145+)
Steele's theory of stereotype vulnerability is an attempt to explain why
African Americans score lower than average on IQ tests.
Permanent
All ______ teeth arrive
Flynn effect
An increase in IQ from one generation to the next.
Information Processing Theory
Another way to look at cognitive development - How children process information differently than adults - Encompasses use of attention, memory, problem-solving, decision making, etc.
Separation Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety about separation from major attachmnet figures and from home
Guilt
Associated with empathy for others and involves feelings of remorse and regret and the desire to make amends
Which scenario describes a social smile? Newborn Timmy smiles during his sleep. At 3 months, Indira smiles when her father talks to her. Alexa smiles at 1 month when her mother strokes her cheek. All of the scenarios describe a social smile.
At 3 months, Indira smiles when her father talks to her.
Distress Interest Disgust
At birth, it is clear that infants display at least three basic emotions:
11
At what ages does the gender attributes of middle childhood closely resembly adults
emotional regulation; emotional intelligence
Attachment to primary caregivers and early relationships play a significant role in developing _____ and _______.
inner self
Awareness of the self ' s private thoughts and imaginings.
Afferent Nerves
Axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body.
Efferent Nerves
Axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body.
In administering which of the following intelligence tests are the examiners instructed to teach children who fail early items how to complete them before proceeding further?
C. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
The form of mental retardation that is caused by the presence of an extra chromosome is
Down Syndrome
Self-Conscious Emotions
Emotions such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others reactions to us
Self-Conscious Emotions
Emotions— such as shame, embarrassment, guilt, envy, and pride— that involve injury to or enhancement of the sense of self.
Full inclusion
Full-time placement in regular classrooms
9
Girls are shorter and lighter until about age _
Organization
Grouping related items
Ekman's 6 basic emotions
Happiness Anger Sadness Disgust Surprise Fear
Activity level (Mary Rothbart)
How much the infant moves (e.g. waves arms, kicks, crawls).
Shared Environmental Influences
Influences that pervade the general atmosphere of the home and therefore, similarly affect siblings living in it (home environment qualities, family beliefs, etc).
Fearful distress/inhibition (Mary Rothbart)
Levels of distress and withdrawal, and how long they last, in new situations.
The original French intelligence test was revised and renamed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale by
Lewis Terman
Reticular Formation
Located in between the midbrain and hindbrain, it contributes to the modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing, and pain perception. It is best known for its role in regulating sleep and arousal.
Convergent Thinking
Logical and conventional thought leading to a single answer
Instrumental
Males generally have _____ traits
Learning
Mastery-oriented focus on _________- increasing abililty through effort and seeking information on how to do so
flexible
Muslces are very ________
Integrity Vs. Despair
Old Age In this final stage, individuals reflect on the kind of person they have been. Integrity results from feeling that life was worth living as it happened. Old people who are dissatisfied with their lives fear death.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
Originally defined in terms of a child's mental age and chronological age; it's now computed by comparing a child's performance with that of other children of the same chronological age.
formal operational stage
Piaget's final stage, in which adolescents develop the capacity for abstract, systematic, scientific thinking. (begins around 11 years old) (300)
Gonads
Prior to birth, they direct the formation of the external sexual organs. At puberty, the increased levels of sexual hormones are responsible for the emergence of secondary sexual characteristics (male's facial hair, female breasts, etc.)
Rivalry
Sibling ______ increases during middle childhood
The notion that all cognitive abilities share a core factor, labeled "g," was proposed by
Spearman
Learning disabilities
Specific learning disorders that lead children to achieve poorly in school
Describe coregulation.
Supervision in which parents provide general oversight but allow children to make moment-to-moment decisions (in authoritative parenting)
Remembered self
The child's life- story narrative, or autobiographical memory, constructed from conversations with adults about the past.
Which of the following statistics is generally used to estimate reliability and validity?
The correlation coefficient
Moral Self-Relevance
The degree to which morality is central to an individual's self-concept.
Stereotype Threat
The fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype which can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance.
Corpus Callosum
The structure that connects the 2 cerebral hemispheres.
Achievement motivation
The tendency to persist at challenging tasks.
person, social, and societal
We continually adapt to change on a _____, ______, and ______ level.
Verbal, performance, & Total
Wechler Intelligence scale has what 3 subscales
Black
____ children hold fewer stereotypic views of females than white children
mnemonic device
a method or strategy to aid memory
interneurons
central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
level 1
children understand that different perspectives may result because people have access to different information.
social prominence
children's judgment of whom most of their classmates admire.
prenatal
conception --> birth
Where a person's actual IQ score falls within the reaction range is determined by
environmental factors
Family studies can indicate whether a trait runs in families, but they cannot provide conclusive evidence that a trait is influenced by heredity because
family members share not only genes but also similar environments.
suicide (factors of)
family poverty, school failure, alcohol and drug use, depression. (331)
menarche
first menstruation, usually around 12 1/2 years old, between 10 1/2 - 15 1/2 yrs.) (287)
retroactive interference
forgetting in which a new memory interferes with remembering an old memory; backward-acting memory interference
proactive interference
forgetting in which an old memory interferes with remembering a new memory; forward-acting memory interference
biotechnology
genetic engineering assisted reproductive techniques remotes customer service (outsourcing)
prevention strategies
helping teenagers at risk for dropping out. (308)
visual imagery
helps enhance encoding by the use of vivid images (encoding strategy/elaborative rehearsal technique)
jensens article
hereditary is largely responsible for individual, ethnic, and SES differences in IQ.
What achievement tests assess
how much a child has already learned (performance)
In a normal distribution of information, MOST people will be found
in the center of distribution
identity domains
include sexual orientation, vocation and religious and political values. (316)
Recent assessments of infants designed to predict educational risk focus on
indexes of attention and encoding of information.
A child who energetically pursues meaningful achievement in his or her culture is exhibiting
industriousness.
play age
initiative vs. guilt
senescence
integrity vs. despair
According to recent research, all of the following are crucial to the achievement of greatness EXCEPT
intelligence
young adulthood
intimacy vs. isolation
According to recent research conducted by Ellen Winner, profoundly gifted children (those with an IQ above 180) are often
introverted and socially isolated.
Empatthy
involves a complex interaction of cognition and affect: the ability to detect different emotions, to take another's emotional per-spective, and to feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way.
Comparing intelligence scores across cultures
is a complex process subject to misinterpretation and cultural bias.
information intermediaries
makes the overlooked info easier to understand; to help consumers make decisions; i.e. endorsements, enticements, services, etc.
asthma
most frequent cause of school absence and childhood hospitalization. (228)
A symmetrical bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many characteristics, including intelligence, are distributed is the
normal distribution
Congenital factors are characteristics that
occur during gestation or birth.
According to Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence, someone who is high in analytic intelligence should
perform well on conventional tests designed to measure reasoning skills.
The Flynn effect is the finding that
performance on IQ tests seems to be rising steadily and consistently over time.
primary sexual characteristics
physical features that involve the reproductive organs directly (ovaries, uterus, and vagina in females; penis, scrotum and testes in males) (286)
anabolic steroids
powerful prescription medication that boosts muscle mass and strength. (285)
Tacit knowledge has been found by Sternberg (2001) to predict
salaries and job performance of workers.
development
systematic age-related changes in physical, cognitive, socio-emotional, and moral functioning across the life span
just educational environments
teachers guide students in democratic decision making and rule setting, resolving disputes civilly, and taking responsibility for others' welfare.
If a test is said to be culturally biased, it would have questions
that were developed by a cultural committee.
axon
the extension of a neuron - ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
cerebellum
the part of the brain at the back of the head that controls the activity of the muscles.
reliability
the stability of a test score over multiple testing sessions.
In solving a problem using divergent thinking, a person
tries to generate many possible answers or solutions.
infancy
trust vs. mistrust
Most school districts consider children who fall in the ____ of the IQ distributions to be gifted.
upper 2-3%
system
way that family is viewed to adapt to changes in its members. (325)
Chi Study
10 year olds and adults - Remember chess positions that saw for 10 sec. - Kids did better than adults, the kids were experts at chess - adults had no knowledge of chess * Note: Kids didn't perform better on the number recall task (demonstrates not superior memory, but rather expertise)
police arrests (adolescents)
17 % in United States.(331)
When Charmaine was 10 years old, she completed the original Binet-Simon scale. She answered all the questions that a typical 6-year-old would answer, but none of the questions a typical 7-year-old would answer. Based on this information, Charmaine's mental age would be
6 years.
Conduct Disorder
A repetitive and persistent pattern of violating basis rights of others and/or age-appropriate norms or rules
Emotional Intelligence
A set of abilities that contribute to competence in the social and emotional domains. Includes being able to: - motivate oneself in the face of frustration, - control impulses and delay gratification, - identify and understand one's own feelings and other's, - regulate one's own emotions' in social interactions, - empathize with others' emotions.
Popular-antisocial children
A subtype of popular children consisting of "tough," athletically skilled but defiant, trouble-causing boys and girls who are admire for their sophisticated but devious social skills
Achievement Test
A test that assesses actual knowledge and skill attainment.
Social Learning Theory
A theory that emphasizes the role of modelling, otherwise known as imitation or observational learning, in the development of behaviour. Its most recent revision stresses the importance of thinking in social learning and is called social-cognitive theory.
object permanence paradigm 1
Baby is sitting, show it a toy it really wants or likes. Put toy down and put a screen between object and baby, 3-4 mo. of age will not attempt even to search out toy. However, if baby makes an attempt to seek out the object then it has developed object permanence. This usually happens at about 8 to 9 months
Preattachment Phase
Birth-6 weeks Built- in signals— grasping, smiling, crying, and gazing into the adult's eyes— help bring newborn babies into close contact with other humans. Once an adult responds, infants encourage her to remain nearby because close-ness comforts them. Babies of this age recognize their own mother's smell, voice, and face ( see Chapter 4). But they are not yet attached to her, since they do not mind being left with an unfamiliar adult.
Child Sexual abuse
Characteristics of victims: -more often female -reported in middle childhood Characteristics of abusers: -usually male -parent or known by parent -may use technology to lure Consequences: -emotional reactions -physical symptoms -effects on behavior Prevention and treatment: -prevention: education -treatment: long-term therapy
2
Children have more acute illnesses the first ____ years of school
Level 0
Children recognize that self and others can have different thoughts and feelings, but they frequently get confused
6
Children with ADHD must have significant impariment in functioning for at least _ months
Temperament
Constitutionally based individual difference in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity ad self-regulation that demonstrates consistency across situations, as well as relative stability over time
Cell Body (Soma)
Contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells.
Which type of validity is evaluated with logic more than with statistics?
Content validity
Dr. Fuller needs a really creative student to assist with the design of a new research project. She's asked to see the IQ scores of a number of students so she can use the scores to choose her new research assistant. What does Dr. Fuller need to know before making her decision?
Creativity is related to intelligence, but only weakly.
Gifted
Displaying exceptional intellectual strengths, including high IQ, creativity, and talent
Focus on End States
Don't consider the intermediate steps that went on. Compare start "image" to end "image".
Which British scholar concluded in his book Hereditary Genius that success runs in families because great intelligence is passed from generation to generation through genetic inheritance?
Francis Galton
Who pioneered the idea that the bell curve could be applied to psychological characteristics?
Francis Galton
In which of the following cases is the correlation between IQ scores the HIGHEST?
Fraternal twins reared together
Males
Gender differences (male/female): Activity Level
Males
Gender differences (male/female): Agression
Semantic Organization
Group items into meaningful units - Sort the objects based on their meaning - Younger (7-8) sort by function (go by common pairings and salient features), Older (9) by category
Emotion-related physiological processes
Heart rate and hormonal or other physiological reactions, including neural activation, that can change as a function of regulating one's feelings and thoughts.
Which psychologist concluded that humans exhibit eight largely independent types of intelligence?
Howard Gardner
In most school districts, designations of intellectual "giftedness" tend to be determined primarily by
IQ test performance
What is the psychological conflict of adolescence?
Identity vs. role confusion
Cognitive maps
Mental representations of familiar, large-scale spaces, such as school or neighborhood.
Phenotype
Refers to the ways in which a person's genotype is manifested in observable characteristics.
Emotional Intelligence
A set of abilities that contribute to competence in the social and emotional domains
Display Rules
A social group's informal norms about when, where, and how much one should how's emotions and when and where display of emotions should be suppressed or massed by displays of other emotions
Emotional Display Rules
A society's rules specifying when, where, and how it is appropriate to express emotions.
According to Sternberg, successful intelligence requires which three abilities?
Analytical, creative, and practical abilities
Out-group favoritism
Assign positive characteristics to the privileged white majority and neagative characteristics to their own group .
2
First _ years are most difficult for children dealing with divorce
Centration
Focusing on only one aspect of the problem, thus can't solve it correctly
Environment
Is intelligence influenced more by heredity or environment?
Peripheral Nervous System
Made up of all those nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. It is divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
How do parents influence the tendency of children to feel shame vs. guilt
Parents help children feel guilt, but not shame by: - Disciplining their children by emphasizing the BEHAVIOUR as bad, and not the child - Helping them understand the consequences of their actions for others - Teaching them to repair the harm they have done. - Avoiding publicly humiliating them. - Communicating respect and love for their children when disciplining them.
Upper-Limit Control Behavior
Reduces & redirects the child's behavior, which exceeds parental standards
Endorphins
Resemble opiate drugs in structure and effects; contribute to pain relief and perhaps some pleasurable emotions.
Guilt & Shame
Shame and guilt can be distinguished fairly early; whether children experience guilt or shame partly depends on parental practices
Hormones
The messengers of the endocrine system, they are the chemical substances released by the endocrine glands.
Terminal Buttons
They are small knobs at the end of the axon that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters.
Monozygotic
Twins emerge from one zygote that splits for unknown reasons (Identical twins).
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Uses magnetic fields, radio waves, and computerized enhancement to map out brain structure (3-D unlike CT Scans). The new fMRI also identifies area of high brain activity.
Externalizing, internalizing, & Pervasive Developmental Disorders
What are 3 types of abnormal behavior?
Academic, social, physical/athletic, & physical appearance
What are the 4 different types of self-esteem?
Marital Relationships, Parenting, & Child behavior & development
What are the three components of Jay Belsky's family system?
Myopic parents; asian heritage
What are two genetic factors for myopia?
Low Birth weight
What early biological trauma contributes to myopia?
9:1
What is the ratio of male to female who have ADHD?
15
What percent of Canadian children are obese?
17
What percent of US children are obese?
Continuum of Acquistion
What term means master of concrete operational tasks gradually?
Negative Feedback System
When hormone levels increase to a certain level, signals are sent to the hypothalamus to inhibit further hormone output.
...
White Canadian 5- year- olds' expres-sions of in- group favouritism and out- group prejudice. When asked to sort positive and negative adjectives into boxes labelled as belonging to a white child and a black child, white Canadian 5- year- olds assigned a greater number of positive adjec-tives ( such as clean, nice, smart) to the white child than to the black child— evidence for in- group favouritism. In addition to viewing the black child less positively, the white Canadian 5- year- olds also assigned a greater number of negative adjectives ( such as dirty, naughty, cruel ) to the black child— evidence for out- group prejudice.
Females
_____: Expressive Traits. Value Interpersonal Relationships
Males
_____: Instrumental Traits. Acts on the world and influence it.
Lower
________ portion of the body grows fastest in middle childhood
The incremental view of intelligence views intelligence as
a body of skills and knowledge that can be increased with effort.
retrieval cue
a clue, prompt, or hint that helps trigger recall of a given piece of information stored in long-term memory
split brain
a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them.
The question, "How many uses can you think of for a paper clip?" would be MOST likely found on
a creativity test
false memory
a distorted or fabricated recollection of something that did not actually occur
Production deficiency
a failure to spontaneously generate and use known strategies that could improve learning and memory.
emotional self-efficacy
a feeling of being control of their emotions,which fosters a favorable self-image and an optimistic outlook.
Emotional self-efficacy is
a feeling of being in control of one's emotional experience.
According to Spearman, intelligence is composed of
a general underlying factor (g) plus a number of specific factors (s).
Annabel has a helpless style of achievement motivation. When she fails at a problem she is likely to attribute her failure to
a lack of ability.
action potential
a neural impulse - a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
competence
a person's basic, underlying level of skill, displayed under ideal circumstances. Not possible to measure directly.
An achievement test measures
a person's mastery and knowledge of a subject.
The intelligence quotient (IQ) is an index of
a person's performance relative to other people's performance who are the same age
Separation anxiety
a. Feelings of distress that children, especially infants and toddlers, experience when they are separated or expect to be separated, from individuals to whom they are emotionally attached. b. Emerges at about 8 months, increases until 13 to 15 months, and then declines. c. This pattern is consistent across different cultures.
____ children often misinterpret the innocent behaviors of peers as hostile. a. Rejected-aggressive b. Rejected-withdrawn c. Controversial d. Popular-antisocial
a. Rejected-aggressive
procedural memory
category of long-term memory that includes memories of different skills, operations, and actions
Organic Mental Retardation
cause can be traced to a specific biological and physical problem
During middle childhood, ____ become(s) a defining feature of one-to-one friendships. a. availability to play b. shared interests c. proximity d. trust
d. trust
Daniel makes As in his classes and is mastery oriented. Daniel will most likely attribute his success to
his ability.
What IQ tests assess
how much you are capable of learning; how well a child can think and learn; designers thought they were measuring a child's basic capacity (underlying competence)
3 parts of personality - Sigmund Freud
id=irrational unconscience, driven by sexual desire;ego=the rationalizing conscience or can do;superego=ingrained moral values or should do
The Bayley Scales of Infant Development are useful at
identifying infants with developmental delays.
Intelligence
includes the ability to reason abstractly, the ability to profit from experience, and the ability to adapt to varying environmental contexts.
Parents of disorganized / disoriented attached
infants show the most deficient forms of parenting. Many of these parents are abusive or neglecting. They can also behave in ways that are frightening to the child. As well, this pattern of infant and child attachment is also associated with maternal depression., i.e., the child (although physically taken care of) is almost totally ignored.
One reason why there is a very low correlation between IQ and creativity is that
intelligent people excel at convergent thinking, while creative people excel at divergent thinking.
Lesion
means the tissue destruction - A brain lesion reffers to a naturally or experimentally damaged or removed brain.
sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system.
Test-retest procedures are used to determine a test's
reliability.
amnesia
severe memory loss
Exosystem
social settings that affect but do not contain the child
Brenda Miller and Suzanne Corkin
studied the case of H.M. who suffers from anterograde amnesia
recency effect
the tendency to recall the final items in a list
late adulthood
65 years++
Pineal Gland
Secretes melatonin, which plays a key role in adjusting biological clocks.
Perspective Taking
The capacity to imagine what other people are thinking and feeling
Goodness of fit Model
Thomas and Chess (1977) proposed a ___________ model to explain how temperament and environment together can pro-duce favourable outcomes. _____________ involves creating child- rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while encouraging more adaptive functioning.
aMental Retardation
Those who score 70 or below on an IQ test
Emotion-related cognitions
Thoughts about one's desires or goals; One's interpretation of an evocative situation; Self-monitoring of one's emotional states.
Prosocial & Antisocial
What are the two categories for popular peer acceptance?
alzheimer's disease
a progressive disease that destroys the brain's neurons, gradually impairing memory, thinking, language, and other cognitive functions, resulting in the complete inability to care for oneself
Administering a test to groups of people having similar characteristics (such as age) in order to develop scoring patterns is called
a test norm.
When determining the norm of a test, one would
administer the test to groups having the same characteristics of those who are to be tested.
Which of the following represents the strongest test-retest reliability for a test?
+0.90
Friendship in middle childhood
- "best friends" become part of middle childhood -Personal qualities, trust become important -more selective in choosing friends -friends help with problem solving and conflict management -type of friends influences development
Chess & Thomas 3 different Temperaments
1. Easy 2. Difficult 3. Slow-to-warm-up
Patterns in Developing Self-Regulation
1.) Transition from Regulation by Others to Self-Regulation 2.) Use of Cognitive Strategies to Control Negative Emotions 3.) Ability to Select Strategies Appropriate for the Situation
Numbers for average IQ scores
100, or 85-115
If a child who is 10 years old has a mental age of 12, the child's IQ would be
120.
emerging adulthood
18 years --> 25 years
early childhood
2 years --> 6 years
Test bias
A constroversial question raised about ethnic differences in IQ has to do with whether they result from ______ ____
Reactive Agression
An angry, defensive response to a provocation or a blocked goal; intended to hurt another person. Also called hostile aggression.
Endocrine System
Consists of glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Consists of the brain and spinal cord.
sympathy
Feelings of concern or sorrow for another's plight.
Which of the following statements is the MOST debatable?
Genetic factors are strongly implicated as the cause of ethnic differences in intelligence.
Mental Hardware & Mental Software
Human cognition consists of what 2 things
What factor has the greatest influence on language development during adolescence?
Improved cognitive awareness and relativistic reasoning; cognitive development
Hindbrain (47-50)
Includes the cerebellum and to structures found in the lower part of the brain stem: the medulla and the pons.
Occipital Lobe
Located in the back of the head, it is where must visual signals are sent and most visual processing begun. The area is called the primary visual cortex.
Memory
Permeates most other higher order cognitive processes - Episodic (declarative) - Semantic (declarative) - Procedural
Cognitive, emotional, & social
Pervasive development disorders are severe problems with _______. _______, & ________ development
Major Domains of Development
Physical, Cognitive, Emotional & Social
Rehearsal
Repeating information to oneself
Positive affect/approach (Mary Rothbart)
Smiling, laughing, approaching people, degree of cooperativeness and manageability.
Information Processing
Step-by-step mental operations used in tackling intellectual tasks
practical, creative, & analytical
Sternberg's triarchic theory consists of _______. _______. and ________
Reversibility
The ability to go through a series of steps in a problem and then mentally reverse dirction, returning to the starting point.
Parents
Who are the most influential adults?
Fathers
______ treat sons and daughters differently
long-term potentiation
a long-lasting increase in synaptic strength between two neurons
source confusion
a memory distortion that occurs when the true source of the memory is forgotten
imagination inflation
a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred
Most explanations for the Flynn effect revolve around
a variety of environmental factors
PET scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.
There is a strong correlation between
academic self-esteem and school achievement
accomodation
adjusting schemes to fit new info and experiences
The test you are currently taking is an example of what kind of test?
an achievement test
self concept
an individuals perception of his or her identity as distinct from that of others
Phenylketonuria may lead to mental retardation because of
an inherited enzyme deficiency.
Correlations between students' IQ scores and their school grades suggest that IQ tests
are a reasonably valid method to predict school performance.
self-esteem
as children enter school and receive more feedback and being compared with peers this differentiates and also adjusts to a more realistic level
digit span
assesses the basic capacity of working memory (from 4 to 7 digits, age7-12) (234)
With regard to diversity and inequality, young school-age children
associate power and privilege with white people.
Culture-fair tests are intelligence tests that
attempt to minimize biased content based on experience or cultural background.
The factor analytic approach to intelligence
attempts to determine whether there are distinct factors that make up intelligence.
early childhood (as one of Erikson's 8 stages)
autonomy vs. shame/doubt
prefrontal cortex
brain structure involved in working memory
Profound feelings of shame
can induce hopelessness or intense anger.
spermarche
first ejaculation of seminal fluid, around 13 1/2 years old. (287)
identity diffusion
identity status of individuals who lack both exploration and commitment to self-chosen values and goals. (316)
Eleven-year-old Vaitupu knows that his mother is angry because his room is a mess. He spends the morning cleaning his room, and then asks his mother to come and inspect it. Vaitupu is using ________ to solve his problem.
problem-centered coping
Data from the standardization samples for the Standford-Binet and Wechsler scales suggest that since the 1970s, the gap in IQ scores between African Americans and Caucasians has
shrunk by about 4 to 7 points.
A method for determining the reliability of a test taker's score by comparing scores on separate testing sessions is known as
test-retest reliability
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
retrieval
the process of accessing stored information
The IQ scores of children raised in substandard environments tend
to decrease as the child gets older.
Separation Anxiety
• Distress that children, especially infants and toddlers, experience when they are separated, or expect to be separated, from individuals to whom they are attached → It is a salient and important type of fear/distress → Tends to increase from 8 to 13 or 15 months and then begins to decline → Pattern observed across cultures
Functionalist Approach
• Emphasizes role of the environment in emotional development → Proposes that the basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal → Maintains that emotions are NOT discrete from one another, & vary somewhat based on social environment
Fear
• First clear signs emerge at 6 to 7 months → When unfamiliar people no longer provide comfort/pleasure similar to that provided by familiar people • Fear of strangers intensifies and lasts until about age 2 → Variable across individuals and contexts • Other fears (e.g., of loud noises) also evident at around 7 months → Generally decline after 12 months
Emotions in Adolescence
• Greater negative emotion than middle childhood • Minority experience a major increase in the occurrence of negative emotions, often in their relations with their parents
blended or reconstituted families
family structure resulting from cohabitation or remarriage that includes parent, child and steprelatives. (272)
According to Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence, someone who is high in practical intelligence should
be able to solve problems that are unique to the existing cultural surroundings.
infancy and toddler
birth --> 2 years
physical/biological development
bodily changes, maturation and growth
Crystallized Intelligence
in Cattell's theory, a form of intelligence involving skills that depend on accumulated knowledge and experience, good judgement, and mastery of social customs. (Remains stable)
popular-anitsocial
include boys- athletically skilled but cause trouble and defy adult authority - and relationally aggressive boys and girls who enhance their own status by ignoring, excluding, and spreading rumors about other children
Seven-year-old Hannah has developed a strong sense of inadequacy and has little confidence in her ability to do things well. Hannah is displaying
inferiority.
peer groups
by the end of middle childhood children display a strong desire for group belonging / collectives that generate unique values and standards for behavior and a social structure of leaders and followers / organize based on the basis of proximity, similarity in sex, ethnicity, academic achievement, popularity, and aggression
The concept of "mental age"
is based on the number of correct test items achieved relative to a specific age group.
Tacit knowledge
is implicit knowledge shared by many people.
emotion-centered coping
is internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be down about the outcome
source memory or source monitoring
memory for when, where, and how a particular piece of information was acquired
rehearsal
memory strategy of repeating information. (234)
Ethology
_______ focuses on the adaptive, or survival, value of behaviour and on similarities between human behaviour and that of other species, especially our primate relatives. Observing this chimpanzee mother cuddling her 8- day- old infant helps us understand the human- infant caregiver relationship.
Many human traits, including intelligence, show a normal distribution. This means that
most cases are near the middle of the distribution.
Risk factors (in the shared environment)
most important is low socioeconomic status (SES); includes mother's level of education
PROSOCIAL
__________ BEHAVIOR REFERS TO ACTIONS THAT ARE INTENDED TO AID OR BENEFIT ANOTHER PERSON OR GROUP OF PEOPLE WITHOUT THE ACTOR'S ANTICIPATION OF EXTERNAL REWARD. These actions often entail some cost or self sacrifice. They include generosity, altruism, sympathy, helping, sharing, donating to charity, etc. What are the determinants of ________ behavior? Biological Factors Culture Socialization Experiences Cognition Situational Determinants
Authoritative
___________ parenting combines limit setting and discipline with warmth and support and it's that combination that makes authoritative parenting so valuable.
Coregulation
a form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while permitting children to be in charge of moment-by-moment decision making - grows out of a cooperative relationship between parents and child and prepares the child for the greater freedom of adolescence.
neuron
a nerve cell - the basic buidling block of the nervous system.
What occurs when a hypothetical, abstract concept is given a name and then treated as though it were a concrete tangible object?
a reification
Pattern of self-regulation development: selection of appropriate regulatory strategies
a. Children improve in their ability to select the best strategy for each emotional situation. b. Being to understand that a particular coping strategy may or may not be appropriate depending on the situation and their goals. c. Planning and problem-solving skills improve as the child grows older. d. Growing ability to distinguish between stressors that can be controlled and those that cannot: stop trying to change situations that can't be changed.
Parents' expression of emotions (socializing)
a. Emotions expressed in the home influence how children view themselves and others. b. Modelling for when and how to express emotion, and which emotions are appropriate and effective in interpersonal relations. c. Parental emotions affect children's general level of distress and arousal in social interactions. d. Children exposed to negative emotions in the home show more negative emotions in social interactions, and vice-versa. e. Genetics may play a role: if the parent is genetically prone to negative emotions, this trait passes along to the child, and influences both their nature and their environment.
Although Piaget's three-mountains task suggests that preoperational children cannot take the perspective of others, recent research has shown that when investigators____, 4-year-olds show clear awareness of others' vantage points. a. include familiar objects and other assessment methods b. permit children to walk around the display c. use mountains of differing heights d. use picture-selection methods
a. include familiar objects and other assessment methods
Preschoolers who spend more time at sociodramatic play are generally rated by their teachers as ____ compared to their agemates. a. more socially competent b. less imaginative c. more egocentric d. less animistic
a. more socially competent
theory vs. evidence
ability to distinguish theory from evidence and use logical rules to examine their relationship in complex situations. (302)
seriation
ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight. (231)
creativity
ability to produce work that is original yet appropriate - something others have not thought of that is useful in some way. (250)
phonological awareness
ability to reflect on and manipulate the sound structure of spoken language, as indicated by sensitivity to changes in sounds within words and to incorrect pronunciation. (a strong predictor of reading and spelling achievement) (237)
blended families
about 60% of divorced remarry within a year / parent, stepmother, and children form a new family structure / switching to stepparents' new rules and expectations can be stressful, and children often view step-relatived intruders
After being administered the Stanford-Binet Test, the psychometrician told you that your child's mental age scored higher than his chronological age. Your child's IQ is
above 100.
If your roommate tries to convince you that the college cafeteria uses leftovers from students' dinner trays to make stew for the next day's lunch by arguing that she has never seen the leftovers actually thrown out, your roommate's argument is using
an appeal to ignorance
The argument that no one has demonstrated that intelligence is largely shaped by environment, so it must be largely inherited, is an example of
an appeal to ignorance
reciprocal teaching
an approach to teaching based on Vygotsky's theory in which a teacher and two to four students form a collaborative learning group and take turns leading dialogues on the content of text passage, using four cognitive strategies: questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting. (creates a zone of proximal development in which reading comprehension improves) (249)
Child Development
an area of study devoted to understanding constancy and change from conception through adolescence. Part of a larger field of study, Developmental Science, which studies throughout entire lifespan.
An elementary school child is given a test designed to determine whether or not she should be placed in a class of "gifted" children. The test is probably
an intelligence test
phobia
an intense, unmanageable fear that leads to persistent avoidance of the feared situation. (274)
Theory
an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behaviour. First, they provide organizing frameworks for our observations of children. In other words, they guide and give meaning to what we see. Second, verified by research often serve as a sound basis for practical action.
schema
an organized cluster of information about a particular topic
The effects of social class and ethnicity on intelligence
are critical to our understanding of intelligence
The performance items on the Wechsler Intelligence scales
are less likely to be influenced by formal education than other items on the scales.
Which of the following is NOT one of the ways in which middle- and lower-class mothers differ in their interactions with their children? Middle-class mothers
are more concerned with strict discipline.
The consensus among MOST researchers is that the heritability of intelligence is
around 50%.
emotional self-regulation
as children compare themselves to others and care more about peer approval, they must learn to manage negative emotions that threaten their self-esteem
understanding individual rights
as children's grasp of moral requirements and social agreements strengthens, so does their conviction that certain choices, such as hairstyle, friends, and leisure activities, are up to the individual - children view freedom of speech and religion as individual rights, even if law exist that deny those rights
learned helplessness
attributions that credit success to external factors, such as luck, and failure to low ability. (leads to anxious loss of control in the face of challenging tasks) (260)
mastery-oriented attributions
attributions that credit success to high ability and failure to insufficient effort. (leads to high self-esteem and a willingness to approach challenging tasks. (259)
maternal employment/ dual earner families
authoritative child rearing and coregulation with maternal employment often leads fathers to take on greater child-care responsibilities / paternal involvement is associated with higher intelligence and achievement, more mature social behavior, and flexible view of gender roles
diffuse-avoidant cognitive style
avoid dealing with personal decisions and problems, and allow current situational pressures to dictate their reactions. (317)
During early childhood, on average, children grow ____ in height and ____ in weight each year. a. 1 to 2 inches; 3 to 4 pounds b. 2 to 3 inches; 5 pounds c. 3 to 4 inches; 7 pounds d. 4 to 5 inches; 9 pounds
b. 2 to 3 inches; 5 pounds
During a conservation-of-number problem, Carmen recognizes that a change in the length of the row is compensated for by a change in the spacing between each penny. This example demonstrates that Carmen is capable of a. seriation b. decentration c. transductive reasoning d. perception-bound thinking
b. decentration
In contrast to Japanese and Taiwanese parents, American parents a. spend more time helping their children with homework b. tend to regard native ability as the key to academic success c. hold higher standards for their children's academic performance d. believe that all children have the potential to master challenging academic tasks if they work hard enough
b. tend to regard native ability as the key to academic success
Parents of securely attached
babies are sensitive to the baby's needs and wishes; they are responsive, try to figure out what the baby wants; they respond quickly and are warm and affectionate. They provide a supportive environment without being pushy and demanding.
Piaget's class inclusion problem
between ages 7 and 10, children are more aware of classification hierarchies and can focus on three relations at once.(231)
Describe the following: bicultural identity, identity confusion, identity foreclosure, and ethnic identity.
bicultural identity - identify with two cultures; identity confusion - don't explore and don't commit; identity foreclosure - don't explore but commit; ethnic identity - an ethnicity you identify yourself with
amygdala
brain structure situated very close to the hippocampus that is involved in encoding and storing the emotional qualities associated with particular memories, such as fear or anger; also involved in encoding memories of sensory stimuli that are associated with rewards and punishments
medial temporal lobes
brain structure that is involved in encoding complex memories by forming links among the information stored in multiple brain regions
prominant crowds
brains, jocks, populars, partyers, nonconformists (328)
Biological Psychology
branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.
School-aged children are likely to view which of the following activities as just as bad as violation of a moral rule? a. four-year-old Allison wearing her father's slippers b. four-year-old Kimberly wearing her mother's lipstick c. four-year-old David playing with dolls d. four-year-old Sally playing with trucks
c. four-year-old David playing with dolls
mainstreaming
placement of students with learning difficulties into regular classrooms for part of the school day. (250)
The communicative side of language is called . . . ?
pragmatics
Which of the following individuals would be most likely to think that IQ tests have validity? A person who believes IQ tests are designed to
predict school performance
Inductive discipline a. sometimes produces overwhelming feelings of guilt in children b. often produces such high levels of fear and stress that children cannot think clearly enough to figure out what they should do c. points out the impact of children's action on others and provides them with reasons for changing their behavior d. may stop unacceptable behavior temporarily, but does not lead to internalization of moral norms
c. points out the impact of children's action on others and provides them with reasons for changing their behavior
During middle childhood, memory strategies develop in which order? a. elaboration, organization, rehearsal b. organization, rehearsal, elaboration c. rehearsal, organization, elaboration d. rehearsal, elaboration, organization
c. rehearsal, organization, elaboration
perspective taking
capacity to imagine what other people may be thinking and feeling. (261)
shared environment
characteristics of a family that affect all children in the household
nonshared environment
characteristics of a family that affect one child but not others in the household
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
problem-centered coping
children appraise the situation as changeable, identify the difficulty, and decide what to do about it
traditional classroom
classroom based on the educational philosophy that the teacher is the sole authority for knowledge, rules, and decision-making. (students are relatively passive-listening, responding when called on, and completing teacher-assigned tasks. their progress is evaluated by how well they deep up with a uniform set of standards for their grade.) (248)
The perspective on the investigation of intelligence that focuses on how people use their intelligence is the
cognitive perspective
Information-processing approaches to intelligence emphasize
cognitive processing skills, such as memory and problem solving.
IT
communication tools media (TV, cameras, bluetooth) wifi mobile commerce HIPPA relationships
body image
conception of and attitude toward one's physical appearance. (290)
Microsystem
concerns relations between the child and the immediate environment
self-efficacy
confidence in their own ability, which supports future self-regulation. (237)
peer acceptance
refers to likability - the extent to which a child is viewed by a group of age mates, such as classmates, as a worthy social partner
The Difficult Child
( 10 percent of the sample) has irregular daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences, and tends to react negatively and intensely.
Familial Mental Retardation
repersents the lower end of the normal distribution of intelligence
Recognition memory
- Emerges very early (Cat in Hat Study) - Original stimulus is there and you just need to recognize if it is familiar - Present with a stimulus; later present with same stimulus again - do you recognize that you have seen it before - Rovee-Collier work - By 4 years ____________ _____________ is very good (almost as good as adults) - Can have 90% accuracy when recognizing 80 pictures they were shown earlier (old/new test) - Ability may be innate
Discrete or Differential Theories of emotion
- Emotions are distinct, placed in mutually exclusive categories. - Innate: can be differentiated vey early in life. - Each emotion is "packaged" with a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions. - Categories: Basic vs. Self-conscious emotions.
Possible causes of depression in adolescents.
- Hormonal imbalances - Body image - Identity crisis - Family history (genetic) - Peer rejection, or bullying - Chronic stress - Family conflict; low levels of family engagement, support, and acceptance; and high levels of negativity. - Maladaptive belief systems: seeing oneself in excessively negative way, feeling incompetent, flawed and worthless; viewing the world as unfair and cruel. - Lack of self-efficacy. - Rumination and co-rumination - Lack of emotional regulation
Conservation tasks
- Kids start stage without understanding that physical attributes of an object remain unchanged even if outward appearance is different - Understanding develops gradually - becomes more sophisticated with age - Volume, weight and number conservation
Suicide in adolescents
- Leading cause of death after accidents: 300 per year in Canada. - Estimated that for every actual death, there are 200 additional attempts. - Big sex difference: boys actually "succeed" in suicide, girls attempt more often. - Girls: more likely to use peaceful methods. - Boys: more likely to use violent methods. - Adolescence is the age of onset of various personality disorders, which may influence the rates of suicide in this age group.
*Discalculia
- difficulty processing numbers .
Coping Strategies
-Problem-Centered Coping - Emotion-Centered Coping
Contemporary IQ tests characterize intelligence as
consisting of 10-15 primary abilities.
Which statistical method is used to determine the reliability of a test?
correlation coefficients
Siblings in Family relationship
-rivalry, companionship and assistance, need parental encouragement -siblings benefit when parents encourage warm, considerate sibling ties
Problem-centered coping
-situation is seen as changeable -difficult is identified -decision made on what to do
adolescent parenthood (effects)
1) educational attainment 2) marital patterns 3) economic circumstances (297)
One of the principles of successful intervention programs involves
creating a support system that the child will need to maintain their academic progress
According to Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence, someone who is able to cope well with new or novel tasks should score high in
creative intelligence
Research suggests that the amount of time people spend living abroad is positively correlated with
creativity
When test performance is compared to other independent criteria currently available to access a given trait, the psychologists is measuring
criterion-related validity
If you wanted to be able to predict your success at being an engineer, you would take a test that measured your potential for this profession. It is hoped that the test would be high in
criterion-related validity.
The correlation between a group's scores on an industrial aptitude test and actual performance on the industrial job would describe the test's
criterion-related validity.
Piaget's stages
sensorimotor preoperational concrete operational formal operational
Methods for measuring temperament
1. Parental report through questionnaires. 2. Laboratory visits 3. Physiological measures
Modern IQ tests have a mean of ____ and a standard deviation of ____.
100;15
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
1712- 1778 Discontinuous Nature One course of development This French philosophe believed that human beings had been most free and happy in the state of nature (the "noble savage"), but had been corrupted by civilization
Ivan Pavlov
1849-1936 Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs
Alfred Binet
1857-1911 French psychologist who developed the first intelligence test in the early 20th century, which later became known as the Stanford-Binet.
Jean Piaget
1896-1980 Brilliant observer of children- children make constant mental adaptations to new observations experiments, equilibration is a child's attempt to reach a balance between what the child encounters in the environment and what cognitive structures the child brings to the situation. Developed cognitive developmental theory
suicide
3rd leading cause of death (after motor vehicle collisions and homicides) (330)
At what age are infants capable of distinguishing certain emotional expressions in other people?
4 to 7 months.
Pons
A bridge of fibers that connects to the brainstem with the cerebellum. They also contain several clusters of cell bodies involved with sleep and arousal.
...
A wealth of research confirms that an effective way to reduce prejudice— in children and adults alike— is through intergroup contact, in which ethnically different indi-viduals have equal status, work toward common goals, and become personally acquainted, and in which authority figures ( such as parents and teachers) expect them to engage in such interaction.
Richard Bell
According to ____ ___ the parent/child relationship is bi-directional
A form of egocentrism that involves an inability to distinguish perspectives of self and others occurs when?
Adolescence
females
After two years _____ were still having interpersonal problems.
significant others
As you age, your identity is influenced by ______ _____.
Most estimates of the heritability of intelligence for middle-class white Americans are approximately
B. 50% inherited vs. 50% environmental.
5
By age _, gender stereotyping of activities and occupations is well-established
Marshmallow Test Results
Children in reliable environments wait 4 TIMES LONGER to eat the marshmallow
Gender Stereotypes
Common beliefs about appropriate characteristics for males and females
Dopamine (DA)
Contributes to control of voluntary movement and pleasurable emotions; decreased levels associated with Parkinson's disease; overactivity at DA synapses associated with schizophrenia; cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at DA synapses.
Cerebellum
Critical to the coordination of movement and to the sense of equilibrium (physical balance). Damage disrupts fine motor skills such as writing, typing, or playing an instrument).
Which theorist set out to improve on the measurement of intelligence in adults with an intelligence test with two major innovations: that the score was less dependent on a subject's verbal ability and the use of a deviation intelligence quotient?
David Wechsler
Which of the following statements about the influence of culture on the use of IQ tests is MOST accurate?
Different cultures have different conceptions of what intelligence is.
Gifted
Displaying exceptional intellectual strengths, including high IQ, creativity, and talent.
Irritable distress (Mary Rothbart)
Fussiness, anger, and frustration, especially if the child is not allowed to do what he or she wants to do.
existential intelligence
Gardner's recently proposed ninth type of intelligence; deals with the spiritual realm and enables us to contemplate the meaning of life
Females
Gender differences (male/female): Social Influence
Describe body growth and brain development during early childhood.
Height and weight • Average growth is 2.5 inches and 5 to 7 pounds per year during early childhood • Growth patterns vary individually • Important contributors to height differences 1. Ethnic origin 2. Nutrition -taller - urban, middle-socioeconomic status, first born, african american The brain • Does not grow as rapidly during early childhood as in infancy - Undergoes remarkable changes • From 3 to 6 years of age -Most rapid growth in the brain takes place in the part of the frontal lobes known as thePREFRONTAL CORTEX (plays key role in planning & organizing new actions & maintaining attention to tasks) • Rapid, distinct spurts of growth in the frontal lobes
Development of Intelligence
Identical twins: Correlations of IQ increase with age, suggesting that genetic influence on IQ increases with age. The opposite is true of those with shared environments but different genes (fraternal twins or other siblings). 3 types of environmental interactions: passive, evocative, & active
Specific Intelligence
In Spearman's theory, a mental ability that is unique to a task.
Why is emotional intelligence important?
It predicts how well people do in life, especially in their social lives, better than any other measurable factor.
Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
It seeks to understand the adaptive value of species- wide cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age
Self-regulation strategies (emotional regulation)
Looking, away, thumb sucking, blanket, self-soothing behaviour, touching, falling asleep.
Somatic Nervous System
Made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles sensory receptors. These nerves are the cables that carry information from the receptors in the skin, muscles, and joints to the CNS and carry commands from the CNS to the muscles.
Practical Intelligence
Mental abilities apparent in the real world but not in testing situations.
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Nourishes the brain and the spinal cord and provides a protective cushion for it. Ventricles are hollow cavities in the brain that are filled with CSF.
Which of the following does NOT characterize a psychological test?
Psychological tests allow one to predict behavior with great accuracy.
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Released by motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles; contributes to the regulation of attention, arousal, and memory; some ACh receptors stimulated by nicotine.
Pituitary Gland
Releases a great variety of hormones that fan out around the body, stimulating actions in other endocrine glands ("the master gland").
Social Referencing
Relying on another person's emotional reaction to appraise an uncertain situation.
Half
Researchers estimate that about ____ the differences in IQ among children can be traced to their genetic makeup
Peer groups
Social units of peers who generate unique values and standards for behavior and a social structure of leaders and followers
Characteristics of major clinical depression?
Some combination of at least 5 of the following symptoms, occurring nearly every day for at least two weeks: - Depressed mood most of the time - Significant weight loss or gain - Insomnia or excessive sleeping - Motor agitations - Fatigue or loss of energy - Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt - Marked diminished interest or pleasure in almost all activities - Diminished ability to concentrate - Recurrent thoughts of death
Information processing theory
Speed of information processing may also underlie individual differences in IQ scores. 1. Faster processing times on speed of performance of simple tasks correlate with higher IQ scores 2. Biological link to fast central nervous system functioning and higher IQ. 3. Research on children suggest speed differences may be inborn.
Emotional Self Regulation
Strategies for adjusting our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals.
Mrs. Eccles wants to foster a mastery-oriented approach to learning in her classroom, particularly with regard to quizzes and tests. Which of the following would you recommend to her?
Stress individual progress and self-improvement.
Some theorists disagree with one of Ekman's 6 basic emotions. Which one and why?
Surprise Some people argue that it is not an emotion, but a cognitive state.
7
Symptoms of ADHD must be present before age _.
If groups of African American and European American students were told that a test they were about to take was diagnostic of intelligence and another set of groups were told the test was not diagnostic of intelligence, which group would be likely to perform the poorest?
The African American group who was told the test was diagnostic of intelligence
Wechsler developed the deviation IQ based on the normal distribution. On his test, an overall IQ of 130 would mean
the person scored two standard deviations above the mean.
Children who ____ are more prone to racial and ethnic biases. a. think of people in terms of group distinctions b. view people's behavior as due to fixed traits c. have overly high self-esteem d. all of the above
d. all of the above
The overriding factor in positive adjustment following divorce is a. children's relationships with extended family, teachers, and friends b. children's cognitive and social maturity c. children's temperament d. effective parenting
d. effective parenting
Easy, Poor, Good
The ______ CHILD is generally responsive to the parents' socialization. They tend to behave in ways that their parents foster. ______ fit—Parents who strongly socialize a child in ways that do not fit in with the child's larger environment pose a problem for this child. That is, the home environment and the school and neighbourhood environment strongly clash. _______ fit—Parental behaviour that fits in with the expectations of the child's social world, i.e., school, the neighbourhood, and so on.
Role of Expertise
when a child has expertise in an area their performance at recall can be very good - Chi Study
deidealize
when teenagers view parents as "just people".
To remember a given instance of a repeated event, children and adults use ____, general descriptions of the typical sequence of events in a particular situation. a. hierarchical classification b. scaffolds c. dual representation d. scripts
d. scripts
Not usually mastered until around age 6, ____ is often considered to be the most complex self-help skill developed in early childhood. a. eating with utensils b. fastening buttons c. brushing teeth d. tying shoes
d. tying shoes
Seriation
The ability to order items along a quantitative dimensions, such as length or weight
Creativity
The ability to produce work that is orignial yet appropriate- something that others have not though of but that is useful in some way
Transitive inference
The ability to serieate- or order items along a quantitative dimension- mentally
peer victimization
destructive form of peer interaction in which certain children become frequent targets of verbal and physical attacks of other forms of abuse. (267)
According to the "drudge theory" of exceptional achievement, eminence in a field depends on
determination and tedious practice
Multiple Sclerosis
The loss of muscle control resulting from a deterioration of myelin sheaths.
Susan Harter
developed a self-perception profile for children that reflected these various domains. Here is a sample of the sorts of questions she asks children in elementary and junior high school.
Absolute Refractory Period
The minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin (about 1-2 milliseconds). It is followed by a brief refractory period during which the neuron can fire but its threshold for firing is elevated (more stimulation is required initiate an action potential).
belief-disire theory of mind ages 3-4
The more sophisticated theory of mind that emerges , in which children understand that both beliefs and desires determine behaviour.
Robert Selman
devised a five- stage sequence of perspective- taking skill, based on children's and adolescents' responses to social dilemmas in which characters have dif-fering information and opinions about an event.
If a large research study measured the IQs of Caucasian middle-class American females and middle-class Japanese males, it is MOST likely that measures of heritability for the two groups would be
different because heritability may vary from one group to another.
Emotional Self-Regulation
The process of initiating, inhibiting, or modulating internal feeling states and related physiological processes, cognitions, and behaviours
Self- regulation of emotions
The process of initiating, inhibiting, or modulating: a. Internal feeling states b. Emotion-related cognitions c. Emotion-related physiological processes d. Emotion-related behaviour
Socialization
The process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge and behaviours that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future role in their particular culture
Socialization
The process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge and behaviours that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future role in their particular culture.
Me-self
The self as an object of knowledge and evaluation, consisting of all physical, psychological, and social characteristics that make the self unique
I-self
The self as knower and actor, which is separate from the surrounding world, remains the same person over time, has a private inner life not accessible to others, and can control its own thoughts and actions
Self Conceept
The set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is.
Which condition is NOT a characteristic of difficult babies, as classified by Thomas and Chess? irregular body functions difficult at first but became easier with time slow to adjust to new situations intensely emotional
difficult at first but became easier with time
delinquency factors
difficult temperament, low intelligence, poor school performance, and peer rejection. (332)
Behaviorism
directly observable events— stimuli and responses— are the appropriate focus of study. North American ________ began in the early twentieth century with the work of psychologist John Watson ( 1878- 1958), who, rejecting the psychoanalytic concern with the unseen workings of the mind, set out to create an objective science of psychology.
Gunnar is 50 years old and only completed the sixth grade when he was in school. For the past 30 years, Gunnar has been a successful fisherman who has five fishing boats. Recently, he took part in an aging study conducted by a university near his home and was told that his IQ score was only 65. Based on the definition for mental retardation provided by the American Association on Mental Retardation, Gunnar
does not meet the definition because he does not show deficits in daily living skills.
Transition to Self-Regulation
• Parents initially help infants regulate emotional arousal by controlling exposure to stimulating events • By 6 months, infants reduce distress → By averting gaze → By self-soothing (e.g., engaging in stylized or repetitive rubbing or stroking of their bodies or clothing) • Between ages 1 and 2, infants increasingly turn attention to non- distressing objects or people to distract themselves
Personality
• Refers to the pattern of behavioral and emotional propensities, beliefs and interests, and intellectual capacities that characterize an individual • Has its roots in temperament but is shaped by interactions with the social and physical world • Chief among these interactions are children's relationships with their parents and their parents' socialization practices.
popular children
children who get many positive votes on self-report measures of peer acceptance. (265)
Predictability is to criterion-related validity as ____ is to test-retest reliability.
consistency
Everyone likes to have Lydia working on their committees because she seems to have the unique ability to consider a variety of options and quickly narrow the list of options down to the one or two best alternatives. In other words, Lydia is skilled in
convergent thinking.
Temperament
early- appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self- regulation. Reactivity refers to variations in quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor action. Self- regulation, as we have seen, refers to strategies that modify reactivity
different types of infant temperaments
easy child slow to warm up difficult
bulimia nervosa
eating disorder in which individuals (mainly females) engage in strict dieting and excessive exercise accompanied by binge eating, often followed by deliberate vomiting and purging with laxatives. (292)
anorexia nervosa
eating disorder in which young people starve themselves because of a compulsive fear of getting fat. (291)
multiple intelligences
eight types of intelligence (linguistic, logical/mathematical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic) proposed by Howard Gardner
attribution retraining
encourages learned-helpless children to believe that they can overcome failure by exerting more effort. (260)
industriousness
energetic pursuit of meaningful achievement in his culture. (257)
Psychologists who emphasize that most mildly retarded children come from the lower socioeconomic classes tend to believe that the majority of cases of mental retardation are caused by
environmental factors
The fact that the correlation in IQ scores between identical twins reared apart is lower than that between identical twins reared together suggests that
environmental factors can have an influence on intellectual development.
The concept of cumulative risk is used to describe the idea that as the number of
environmental risk factors increase, children's performance on IQ tests decreases
gifted
exceptional intellectual ability. (includes high IQ, high creativity, and specialized talent ) (250)
In comparison to most other types of psychological tests, IQ tests tend to be
exceptionally reliable.
merit
extra rewards to go to someone who has worked harder or performed exceptionally. (6-7 years) (263)
moral behavior influences
factors include emotions of empathy, sympathy, and guilt ; differences in temperament; history of experiences; cognition. (323)
moral understanding influences
factors include rearing practices, schooling, peer interaction and culture. (322)
semantic memories
factual information, lexical information you have stored
industry (lack sense of)
fail to select a vocation that matches their interests and skills. (314)
secondary sexual characteristics
features visible on the outside of the body that serve as signs of sexual maturity but do not involve the reproductive organs (such as breast development in females, appearance of underarm and pubic hair in both sexes) (286)
depression
feeling sad, frustrated and hopeless about life. (330)
phonological loop
first component in Baddeley's working memory model; specialized for verbal material, such as lists of numbers or words
Erikson
first recognized formation of an identity— a solid self- definition based on self- chosen values and goals— as the major personality achievement of adolescence. In complex societies, identity achievement ( exploration fol-lowed by commitment) and identity moratorium ( exploration without hav-ing reached commitment) are psychologically healthy identity statuses. Long- term identity foreclosure ( commitment without exploration) and identity diffusion ( lack of both exploration and commitment) are related to adjustment difficulties.
Tests like the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales that focus on products of intelligence and current performance have demonstrated that IQ ___________, whereas tests that focus on the cognitive processes underlying intelligence demonstrate that IQ ____________.
fluctuates over time; is stable over time
Todd has very strong reasoning ability and is able to process information very quickly. It is clear that Todd is high in
fluid intelligence
The type of intelligence that includes memory capacity and speed of information processing is known as
fluid intelligence.
The most successful early intervention programs
focus on improving the family support system and the child's educational needs
strict equality
focus on making sure each person gets the same amount. (5-6 years) (263)
topic focus
focused, stay on topic, facts (caucasian) question style resembles that of tests and classrooms
According to the text, people with high IQs are at lower risk for all of the following health problems EXCEPT
food poisoning
Research indicates that children who use private speech during a challenging activity ____ than their less talkative agemates. a. depend more on help from adults c. are more egocentric b. are less cognitively sophisticated d. tend to do better
d. tend to do better
Script
general representation of what happens in a particular situation - helps ability to recall information, because it provides us with a way to organize it - script = schema
frontal lobes
governor of thought and action; strengthened connections. (288)
obesity
greater-than-20-percent increase over average body weight, based on the individual's age, sex, and physical build. (227)
clique
group of about 5-7 members who are good friends and, therefore, resemble one another in family background, attitudes and values. (328)
Over the last several decades, IQ differences between African Americans and European Americans
have been declining.
Gardner and Sternberg
have collaborated on a program which teaches tacit knowledge needed to succeed in school.
trust (weak sense of)
have trouble finding ideals to have faith in.(314)
The problem with assertions made by Arthur Jensen over 30 years ago is that
he failed to consider socioeconomic factors that influence intelligence.
Albert Bandura
he theorized that (social cognitive theory) personality is acquired not only by direct reinforcement of behavior but also by observational learning, or imitation
The results of twin studies and adoption studies BEST illustrate the unifying theme in psychology that
heredity and environment jointly influence behavior.
Ira has never done well on conventional tests designed to measure reasoning and logical-mathematical abilities, but when new and complex situations arise at his job, he is always the one who seems to come up with novel and effective solutions for the problems. According to Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence, Ira shows
high creative intelligence but lower analytical intelligence.
adolescence
identity vs. identity diffusion
analytical intelligence (originally called componential intelligence)
includes what is normally measured by IQ and achievement tests, including planning, organizing, and remembering facts and applying them to new situations
assimilation
incorporation of new information into existing knowledge (schemes)
The fact that the correlation in IQ scores between identical twins reared apart is higher than that between fraternal twins reared together suggests that intellectual development is
influenced more by genetics than by environmental factors.
Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence expresses the importance of
information-processing skills, experience, and context
According to your textbook, creativity tests may have limited value. Why is this the case?
The tests measure creativity out of context.
disire theory of mind ages 2-3
The theory of mind`:who assume that people always act in ways consistent with their desires but do not understand the influence on behaviour of interpretive mental states, such as beliefs.
Which of the following statements regarding giftedness and achievement in life is MOST accurate?
The vast majority of children selected for gifted school programs do not achieve eminence as adults.
Discontinuous Development
The view that development is a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge in specific stages.
Environmental Cumulative Deficit Hypothesis
The view that the negative effects of underprivileged rearing conditions increase the longer children remain in these conditions, making early cognitive defects harder to overcome.
emotional (or affective) Cognitive behavioral
There are three distinct components to morality, which of course interact with each other. An _______component that consists of the feelings that surround right or wrong actions and that motivate moral thoughts and actions. These include guilt, empathy, and concern for the feelings of others.: psychoanalytic theory A__________component that centers on the way we conceptualize right and wrong or reason about moral issues.ognitive developmental theories A ________ component that reflects how we actually behave when we experience the temptation to violate moral rules such as by lying, cheating, stealing, using drugs, and so on.social learning theory
interrelated memories
involves information from multiple senses, which are processed and stored in different brain areas.
The use of intelligence tests in making employment hiring decisions
is a questionable practice
emotional intelligence
is a set of emotional abilities that enable individuals to process and adapt to emotional information
Attachment
is the strong, affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to experience pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress.
Familial retardation
is usually less severe than organic retardation
Dr. Clarke designs a test she believes will predict an individual's ability to perform in managerial positions. When Dr. Clark administers her test to 100 managers at Aldor Corporation, she finds that some of the best managers do well on the test, but others do quite poorly. Dr. Clarke should probably conclude that her test
lacks criterion-related validity.
peer acceptance
likability, or the extent to which a child is viewed by a group of agemates (such as classmates) as a worthy social partner. (265)
Jeremy is very sensitive to sounds, rhythms, the meaning of words, and the different functions of language. According to Gardner, Jeremy has a high level of
linguistic intelligence.
anterograde amnesia
loss of memory caused by the inability to store new memories; forward-acting amnesia
Temperament plays a role in children's development and social adjustment, but this role is complex and varies as a function of the child's social environment and the degree to which the child represents a challenge to the parents. True or False?
True.
Vagal tone and vagal suppression assess some capacity related to adaptation and emotional regulation. True or False?
True.
Girls are more likely to experience depression during adolescence than boys. True or False?
True. By 19 years old, they are 2 times more likely.
Divergent Thinking
Trying to expand the range of alternatives by generating many possible solutions
Heterozygous
Two genes in a specific pair are different (parents contribute different genes.)
Homozygous
Two genes in a specific pair are the same (both parents contribute same).
Which of the following statements regarding the findings from adoption studies and IQ is LEAST accurate?
Unrelated children who are raised in the same home have no similarities in IQ.
What kind of changes occur in children's self-description between the ages of 8 and 11?
Use social comparisons and describe personality traits or competencies
As a young child, Riley exhibited intense negative emotions and had a great deal of trouble controlling them. Chris, on the other hand, was even-keeled and predictable. As adults, Riley is likely to be: more academically successful than Chris. less socially competent than Chris. more prone to phobias than Chris. similar to Chris, as the qualities exhibited in young childhood rarely carry over to adulthood.
more prone to phobias than Chris.
Bornstein and Tamus (1986) found that attentional processes in infancy were related to
mother's responsiveness.
only children
not always spoiled, and in some respects, they are advantaged / higher in self-esteem than those with siblings, do better in school, and attain higher relationships with parents
Seriation task
ordering from tall to short or biggest to smallest
rejected-withdrawn
passive and socially awkward / these timid children are overwhelmed social anxiety, hold negative expectations for treatment by peers, and worry about being scorned and attacked
If you wanted the best intellectual outcome for a child being placed for adoption, based upon the results of Scarr and Weinberg (1976) you should
place the child with the adoptive family as soon after birth as possible.
full inclusion
placement of students with learning difficulties in regular classrooms for the entire school day. (250)
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon devised the first intelligence test in 1905 in order to
predict the school performance of children.
In comparison with U.S. children, Japanese children are LESS likely to experience which emotion as a consequence of personal success? shame pride guilt embarrassment
pride
cognitive self-regulation
process of continually monitoring progress towards a goal, checking outcomes, and redirecting unsuccessful efforts. (237)
dementia
progressive deterioration and impairment of memory, reasoning, and other cognitive functions occurring as the result of a disease or a condition
religious involvement
promotes responsible academic and social behavior and discourages misconduct. (324)
guilt
prompts children to make amends and to strive for self-improvement. (261)
leptin
protein which is believed to signal the brain that the girl's energy stores are sufficient for puberty. (287)
Dr. Iverson has had 25 students who have repeated her advanced economics class over the past five years. Each time, the students' grades for the second attempt in her course were nearly identical to the grades received on the first attempt. This leads Dr. Iverson to conclude that her testing procedures
provide reliable measures of student ability.
What are teens doing when they achieve mastery of language style?
Using pragmatics and slang; metalinguistic, allows them to sarcasm and irony
Increased speed & capacity
What are the 2 changes to developmental changes to memory?
Motor vehicle, bicycle, & pedestrian
What are the 3 most common types of accidents in middle childhood?
Aggressive & Withdrawn
What are the two categories for rejected peer acceptance?
Reading & Computer Use
What factors of experience can affect myopia?
Biological changes that eventually lead to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity are called ____________.
puberty
Which parental practice in response to a child doing something wrong is likely to influence the child to feel shame over guilt? telling the child that he or she did a mean thing, rather than that he or she is mean publicly humiliating the child helping the child to understand the consequences of his or her actions for others communicating respect and love in disciplinary situations
publicly humiliating the child
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
published the first modern intelligence test in 1905 with the purpose of identifying children who might have difficulty in school; measured vocabulary, comprehension of facts and relationships, and mathematical and verbal reasoning?
Protective factors (in the shared environment)
quality of parent-child interactions (5 dimensions): 1. Provide an interesting and complex physical environment for their children. 2. Emotionally responsive to and involved with their children 3. Talk to their children often, using language that is diverse, descriptive, and accurate. 4. When they play with or interact with their children, they operate in Vygotsky's zone of proximal development 5. Expect their children to do well and develop rapidly; emphasize and encourage school achievement.
The term used to refer to genetically determined limits on IQ is
reaction range.
elaborative rehearsal
rehearsal that involves focusing on the meaning of information to help encode and transfer it to long-term memory; with this effective encoding strategy, you relate the information to other information you already know--elaborate on the new information in some meaningful way
Problems with abstract ideas
What is one of the limitations of concrete operational thought?
5:1
What is the male to female ratio for asperger's syndrome?
industry vs inferiority
What is the psychological conflict of middle childhood?
Role of Parenting in Self-Esteem
What parenting style works best for building self-esteem? Authoritative style is best. What strategies are helpful in boosting self-esteem? Encourage goal-setting to boost self-esteem. What impact can cultural values that focus on the self have? American cultural values focus on self. Can lead to overindulgence paradox: less achievement behaviours, more antisocial behaviors.
75
What percent of females remarry?
Dizygotic
When two eggs are fertilized simultaneously by different sperm cells forming two separate zygotes (Fraternal twins).
Carolina has been raised in an intellectually enriched environment with lots of books and age-appropriate toys. The reaction range model suggests that Carolina will
score near the top of her potential IQ range.
visuospatial sketchpad
second component in Baddeley's working memory model; specialized for spatial or visual material, such as remembering the layout of a room or city
The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children involves
sequential and simultaneous processing.
internal working model
set of expectations about attachment figures, that guide later close relationships. (329)
Rough and tumble
_____ play is that play that if you're a parent you don't want happening in the living room. It's when the kids are playing over and under the couch and you're worried about the lamp falling down. It's the kind of thing that you say, please go play outdoors. And the kids will chase each other all around. And it's often the kind of play that daddies get involved in doing with their kids. The function of __________seems to have to do with self-regulation. Because when you're going over and under the sofa and you're kicking your feet and you've got a lamp right there, it's fairly important that you learn to play and also to regulate your body movements; to not get too revved up and out of control.
working memory
short-term memory system involved in the temporary storage and active manipulation of information; in Baddeley's model, includes the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive components
rejected-aggressive
show high rates of conflict, physical and relational aggression, and hyperactive, inattentive, and impulsive behavior
The direct and indirect influence that parents have on their children's standards, values, and ways of thinking is referred to as: socialization. discipline. emotional regulation. social referencing.
socialization.
Intelligence tests typically measure
specific knowledge and skills.
learning disabilities
specific learning disorders that lead children to achieve poorly in school, despite an average or above-average IQ. (may be due to faulty brain functioning) (250)
The fact that a test is given with uniform procedures in administration and scoring means that the test has been
standardized
The fact that two people taking the same test in two different places will receive the same instructions, the same questions, and the same time limits means that the test has been
standardized
Which of the following explanations of ethnic differences in IQ scores suggests that a person's beliefs that others will attribute his or her possible failure to racial inferiority will lead to performance anxiety and lower IQ scores?
stereotype vulnerability
problem-centered coping
strategy for managing emotion in which the child appraised the situation as changeable, identifies the difficulty, and decides what to do about it. (261)
rejected-withdrawn children
subgroup of rejected children who are passive and socially awkward. (266)
rejected-aggressive children
subgroup of rejected children who engage in high rates of conflict, hostility, and hyperactive, inattentive, and impulsive behavior. (265)
mild mental retardation
substantially below-average intellectual functioning, resulting in an IQ between 55 and 70 and problems in adaptive behavior, or skills of everyday living. (250)
prolonged malnutrition
suffer from retarded physical growth, poor motor coordination, inattention, and low intelligence test scores. (226)
globalism/nationalism
telecomm and transportation outsourcing terrorism labor force
Achievement test
test designed to assess a child's learning of specific material taught in school, such as spelling or arithmetic computation; in the U.S., these are typically given to all children in designated grades
Information about where a particular score on a test falls in relationship to some group is given by
test norms
Individually administered tests
tests that is often used to evaluate gifted and struggling students that is extensive and incorporates a lot of attention
When tested on the Binet-Simon scale, Ada is found to have a mental age of 8. This means
that her performance was as good as that of an average 8-year-old child.
Brenna took a test designed to measure her creativity. She tells you that her final score on the test was 70. She knows you are taking a psychology class, so she asks you what this score means. You should tell Brenna
that you can't interpret her score without knowing the norms for the test.
You recently took the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and just learned that your IQ is 100. This IQ score of 100 means
that you showed average performance on the test.
The average IQ of this year's graduating class at Bradbury High is 112 points. The average IQ of the graduating class from 25 years ago was 107 points, and the average IQ of the graduating class from 50 years ago was 101 points. This trend is consistent with
the Flynn effect
The Flynn effect is a trend demonstrating that
the average IQ in developed nations such as the United States has increased about 15 points from 1932 to 1978.
forces that contribute to a child's development
the child the family schools peers community media
Gender contentedness
the degree to which the child feels satisfied with his or her gender assignment, which also promotes happiness
Gender typicality
the degree to which the child feels similar to others of the same gender
neuroscience
the field of study encompassing the various scientific disciplines dealing with the structure development function chemistry pharmacology and pathology of the nervous system.
retrieval cue failure
the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues
encoding failure
the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory
cerebral cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres - the body's ultimate control and information processing center.
maintenance rehearsal
the mental or verbal repetition of information in order to maintain it beyond the usual 20-second duration of short term memory; not very effective for encoding long-term memory
encoding
the process of transforming information into a form that can be entered into and retained by the memory system
If the Stanford-Binet were administered to members of a rural tribe in Zimbabwe,
the results should be interpreted with extreme caution because the test norms may be invalid for this group.
primacy effect
the tendency to recall the first items in a list
context effect
the tendency to recover information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting as the original learning of the information
interference theory
the theory that forgetting is caused by one memory competing with or replacing another
macrosystem
the values, laws, customs, and resources of the culture that affect activities and interactions at all inner layers.
Regarding the debate about the structure of intelligence that lasted many decades, it is clear that
the vast majority of intelligence tests are designed to tap "g."
Continuous Development
the view that development is a process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with
decay theory
the view that forgetting is due to normal metabolic processes that occur in the brain over time
The most striking feature of children's concepts of God is
their mix of tangible and intangible features.
topic associating
they blend several similar experiences, open ended questions, answers are based on personal experience with no correct answers (students of color)
Mastery oriented approach
they credit their successes to ability (which they can improve through trying hard) and their failures to factors that can be changed, such as insufficient effort.
convergent thinking
thinking that involves arriving at a single correct answer to a problem. (type of cognition emphasized on intelligence tests) (250)
central executive
third component in Baddeley's working memory model; controls attention, integrates information, ad manages the activities of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad; initiates retrieval and decision processes as necessary and integrates information coming into the system
coregulation
transitional form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while permitting children to be in charge of moment-by-moment decision making. (cooperative relationship between parent and child based on give-and-take and mutual respect) (268)
amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion.
propositional thought
type of formal operational reasoning in which adolescents evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real-world circumstances. (301)
Which dimension is probably LEAST affected by cultural norms and practices? types of emotions experienced expression of anger amount of crying by infants feelings of pride
types of emotions experienced
While developing an intelligence test for children, you compare the children's score on the intelligence test with the criterion of their school grades. You are making sure the test is
valid.
If a psychological test does, in fact, measure what it was designed to measure, the test has
validity
Dr. Darden is concerned about whether or not the final exam in his physics class accurately measures a student's accumulated knowledge about core concepts from the course. It appears that Dr. Darden is MOST concerned with the
validity of his final exam
If a psychological test measures what it was designed to measure, the test has ____. If it also shows measurement consistency, it has ____.
validity; reliability
The series of studies by Fagan and colleagues support the view that intelligence scores in childhood can best be predicted from
visual attention behaviors in infancy.
Ishmael and Aliyah were enrolled in different sections of the same course. When Aliyah was taking her midterm exam, there was a lecture being held in the next room. This distracted her and made it difficult for her to concentrate on her exam. When Ishmael wrote his midterm exam, the room next door was empty and he had no distractions. In this example, the administration of the midterm exam for this course
was not standardized across the two course sections.
identity
well-organized conception of the self, made up of values, beliefs, and goals to which the individual is solidly committed. (314)
White children tend to acquire negative attitudes toward ethnic minority out-groups more quickly
when they have little direct experience with such groups.
collaborative style of communication
work together in a coordinated, fluid way, each focused on the same aspect of the problem. (243)
In a longitudinal study, students who viewed their teachers as fair and supportive
worked harder on assignments and participated more in class
Recent research suggests that sterotype vulnerability may undermine test performance by reducing
working memory.
Discrete Emotions Theory
• Argues that emotions: → Are innate → Are discrete from one another from very early in life • Each emotion is package with a specific, distinctive set of bodily/facial reactions
Infant Temperament Experiments
• Chess & Thomas' longitudinal research divided babies into 3 categories (based on parents' reports): → Easy babies(40%) → Difficult babies(10%) → Slow-to-warm-up babies (15%) • Recent research (i.e., Rothbart & Bates, 2006) suggests that infant temperament is captured by six dimensions → Fearful distress, irritable distress, attention span and persistence, activity level, positive affect, and rhythmicity
auditory sensory memory
echoic memory
adolescence
transition between childhood and adulthood, that begins with puberty and involves accepting one's full-grown body, acquiring adult ways of thinking, attaining emotional and economic independence, developing more mature ways of relating to peers of both sexes, and constructing an identity. (283)
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential
A positive voltage shift that increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials. Depends upon which receptor sites are activated.
Selective, adaptive, & Planful
During middle childhood, attention changes in there ways: More ______, ________, & _________
In-group favoritism
Emerges first and strengthsn until age 7 to 8. Children simply prefer their own group, generalizing from self to similar others
Emotion
Emotion is characterized by neural and physiological responses, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings, and the desire to take action
What is an essential aspect of family life that encourages healthy sibling relationships?
Emphasize each child's' competencies; Encourage positive sibling interaction
Moral Self-Regulation
The ability to monitor one's own conduct, constantly adjusting it as circumstances present opportunities to violate inner standards.
Which of the following appears to be the MOST responsible for ethnic differences in IQ?
The cultural disadvantages associated with a lower-class upbringing
Meninges
The enclosing sheaths that protect the spinal cord and the brain. (Causes meningitis when inflamed.)
According to Gardner
each type of intelligence has is own developmental path guided by its own forms of perception, learning, and memory
Secular trend
A generational rise in average IQ in both industrialized nations and the developing words
explicit memory
"memory with awareness"; information or knowledge that can be consciously recollected; also called "declarative memory"
theory of multiple intelligences
(Gardner's theory) defines intelligence in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to solve problems, create products, and discover new knowledge in a wide range of culturally valued activities. dismissing the idea of general intelligence, Gardner proposes at least eight independent intelligences
adaptive behavior scale
(bayley scale) asks about adaptation to the demands of daily life, including communication, self-control, following rules, and getting along with others
social emotional scale
(bayley scale) asks caregivers about such behaviors as ease of calming, social responsiveness, and imitation in play
motor scale
(bayley scale) assesses gross-and fine- motor skills, such as grasping, sitting, stacking blocks, and climbing stairs
cognitive scale
(bayley scale) includes such items as attention to familiar and unfamiliar objects, looking for fallen object, and pretend play
language scale
(bayley scale) taps understanding and expression of language- for example, recognition of objects and people, following simple directions, and naming objects and pictures
Concrete Operations
- 7-11 years - Can think and reason about concrete things, almost adult-like in terms of ability to work with and manipulate information - Can do Transitive Inference Tasks, seriation tasks, and cognitive maps - Need to involve specific objects or events
Agreeableness and Adaptability (Mary Rothbart)
- Agreeableness: Exhibiting positive emotions and behaviours towards others. as well as having a tendency to affiliate with others. - Adaptability: being able to adjust to specific conditions, including the needs and desires of others.
Cortisol level measurement and relationship to temperament
- Baseline cortisol: typical cortisol levels in any given situation. - Higher levels correlate with higher levels of inhibition, anxiety and social withdrawal. - Cortisol reactivity: level of cortisol in stressful situations. - Higher levels of cortisol in a given situation correlate with negative emotionality temperament and lower regulatory abilities.
Sensorimotor Stage
- Birth to about 2 years 1. Stage based on child's actions on environment - actions are reflexive in nature - acting on themselves as an object - Engage or interact with external aspects (the environment) and learn cause-effect relationships 2. Means-End Problem-Solving Improves Ex: infant wants object that is just out of reach - initially cries - attempt to make direct grab - can do actions on other objects to get wanted object 3. Ability to use Symbolism Changes * semantic function - Use own body to symbolize things (pretend to sleep) - Use toys or objects to pretend play - Can use obscure objects to represent other objects 4. Object Permanence Develops 5. Deferred Imitation
Temperament
- Constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor,and attentional reactivity and self-regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations, as well as relative stability over time. - Genetic building blocks of Personality. - Genetic predisposition to behave and react in certain ways. - Relatively stable over time: what may change is HOW it is expressed over time.
Constitutional basis of temperament refers to?
- Genetically inherited characteristics. - Biological functioning: neural development and hormonal responding - which can be affected by the environment during the prenatal and after birth periods.
Vagal tone relationship to temperament
- Low vagal tone: heart rates constantly high, that vary little with inhalation/exhalation. - Low vagal tone correlates with negative reactivity and inhibition in response to novel situations. - High vagal tone: variable and often lower heart rates. - High vagal tone correlates with positive emotions and few negative reactions in novel or stressful situations.
Vagal suppression relationship to temperament
- Modulation of vagal tone in challenging situations, that allows the child to shift away from the physiological responses triggered by the situation and to focus on processing information relevant to generating coping strategies. - High ability for vagal suppression is related to a variety of positive outcomes, including better regulation of state and attention control in infancy, fewer behavioural problems, higher status with peers, more appropriate emotional regulation in pre-school years, - Vagal tone and vagal suppression assess some capacity related to adaptation and emotional regulation.
Buss & Plomin theory of temperament development
- Originally established 3 dimensions: emotionality, sociability, attention. - Later added 3 more: soothability, shyness, activity level. - Measurement: child will have a score for each of the 6 categories, and the composite score is their final score of temperament. - Use parent's report through questionnaire: Colorado Childhood Temperament Inventory
Spatial Organization
- Physically separating things in space - Study with 12 identical containers - Wooden peg or M&M, open and close containers one at a time, got to eat M&M if they remembered which containers are which, 4 year-old can organize this way
Piaget
- Studied children's cognitive development - Used biological background trying to understand cognitive development - Based many ideas on observations of his own kids. Used verbal reports and subject measures - Not influential in America until 1960's. 1920's to 1960's behaviorism dominated field, only studied observable behaviors. 1960's was cognitive revolution
3 Mountain Problem
- Test of egocentric thought - Shown model of mountains - child on one side, doll or person on other. - Asked to draw from perspective of doll - When asked what's on different sides of the mountain, children show very good memory - at 3-4 years old they will draw or say only what it is that they see from their own viewpoint - Note: kids do understand that mountains do look different from other side, but can't transfer knowledge to others
Functionalist Theory of emotions
- The role of emotions is to produce action towards achieving a goal in a given context. - Emotional reactions are affected by social goals, social context, social relationships, others' interpretations of events and their reactions to it, both present and past. - Example: a child may feel shame after doing something wrong. But what is to be considered wrong is determined by the parents, and if the child will consider it wrong as well depends on their relationship with the parents.
Sroufe (1979, 1995) theory of emotional development
- Three basic affect systems: joy/pleasure, anger/frustration, wariness/fear. - These systems undergo developmental change from primitive to more advanced forms during the early years of life. - Changes in the systems are due to infant's expanding social experiences and their increasing ability to understand them.
cognitions
- inner processes of mind that lead to "knowing" - Examples: problem-solving, decision-making, memory, categorization - Generally, are more effective at using cognitive processes as we get older, become more logical, effective, and systematic
Information processing comparison between children who are typically developing and children with mental retardation
-Children showing delayed development did not have complex search strategies for finding missing objects. -Children with mental retardation cannot transfer learning to more complex problems. *Studies suggest flexibility of mental strategies is a component of intelligence
Theory of Mind Task
-Explores how kids understand other's thoughts - Story / Pictures of two kids playing, one kid moves checkers when other isn't in the room - Ask "Where does Adam think the checkers are?" - 3 year old uses own knowledge as answer, 4 year olds take on perspective of others
Children with Intellectual Deficits
-Organic retardation is more severe than familial retardation -mild: IQ 50-70 -moderate: IQ 35-49 -severe: IQ 20-34 -profound: IQ below 20
Influences on Achievement-Related Attributions
-Parents (standards too high? Child incapable?) -Teachers (learning vs. performance goals) -Gender influences -SES, Ethinicity - Cultural values
Periods of Development
-Prenatal development (conception-birth: most rapid time of change, one celled organism transformed into human body, can adjust to surrounding world) -Infancy/Toddlerhood (birth-2: dramatic changes in body and brain that allow for motor, perceptual, and intellectual changes, beginning of language, attachment begins, first independent steps, infancy=birth-1, toddlerhood=1-2) -Early childhood (2-6: body is longer and leaner, motor sills refined, children are more self-controlled and self-efficient, thought and language expand, ties with peers) -Middle childhood (6-11: learn about wider world and master new responsibilities, improved athletic abilities, participation in organized games with rules, more logical thought, mastery of basic literacy skills, understanding morality and friendship) -Adolescence (11-18: transition into adulthood, puberty and sexual maturity, thought is abstract and idealistic, schooling is directed toward prep for higher education/work world) **Emerging adolescence: 18-25, not accepting of adult-roles yet, exploring world, not yet enduring life commitments**
Trace the development of perspective taking in middle childhood, and discuss the relationship between perspective taking and social skills. Describe changes in moral understanding during middle childhood.
-Selman's Stages of Perspective Taking level 0- Undifferentitated; 3-6 years Level 1- Social-informal; at first the child predicts that holly will save the kitten because she doesn't want it to get hurt and that her dad feels the same way, despite holly having to climb a tree; 4-9 years Level 2- Self-reflective; At first, children have only a limited idea of what other people might be thinking and feeling. They can reflect on how another person might regard their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviour. Finally, older children and adolescents can evaluate two people's perspectives simultaneously.; 7-12 years. Level 3- Third-party; 10-15 years Level 4- Societal; 14 years to adult
High Stakes Testing
-The U.S. "No child left behind" -Teachers teaching to the tests -promotes a one size fits all education that is insensitive to student diversity - neglects gifted and talented children - promotes fear - can be imprecise
Understanding Individual rights
-challenge adult authority within personal domain (fashion sense, friendships) - they also regard laws that discriminate against individuals as wrong and worthy of violating. -view denials of personal choices as wrong -however, place limits on individual choice. - older school-age children place limits on individual choice, and prejudice usually declines in middle childhood.- typically decide in favor of kindness and fairness.
Emotion-centered coping
-used of problem-centered coping does not work -internal, private, aimed at controlled distress when little can be done about outcome -goal is emotional self-efficacy
information-processing mechanisms (adolescence)
1) attention 2) inhibition 3) strategies 4) knowledge 5) metacognition 6) cognitive self-regulation 7) speed of thinking and processing capacity (302)
pubertal changes
1) overall body growth 2) maturation of sexual characteristics (284)
Anal Stage
1-3 years Toddlers and preschoolers enjoy holding and releasing urine and feces. Toilet training becomes a major issue between parent and child. If parents insist that children be trained before they are ready, or if they make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear in the form of extreme orderliness and cleanliness or messiness and disorder.
Autonomy Vs. Shame & Doubt
1-3 years Using new mental and motor skills, children want to choose and decide for themselves. Parents can foster autonomy by permitting reasonable free choice and not forcing or shaming the child.
Influences on Self-Esteem
1. Culture- Culture Academic achievement, to score lower in self-esteem than North American children. Gender-stereotyped expectations also affect self-esteem. African-American children tend to have slightly higher self-esteem than their Caucasian peers. 2. Parenting Styles - Authoritative - feel especially good about themselves Authoritarian - Controlling parents communicate a sense of inadequacy to their children. Overindulgent parenting is correlated with unrealistically high self-esteem, which also undermines development. 3. Attributions - their skill set. Fostering a mastery-oriented approach. 4. Experience with success and failure 5. Labels and judgments from others - the value attached to certain skills and qualities, which is affected and influenced by child's peers, parents, teachers, culture... Labels and judgments from others, because this will influence how the child views him/herself. When children strive for worthwhile goals, achievement fosters self-esteem, which, in turn, promotes good performance.
Two main approaches/theories of emotion
1. Discrete / Differential theories 2. Dimensions theories
Two types of strategies used for regulating emotions
1. Do it yourself. 2. Get help from others, usually parents.
Mary Rothbart 6 dimensions of temperament
1. Fearful distress/inhibition 2. Irritable distress 3. Attention span and persistence 4. Activity level 5. Positive affect/approach 6. Rhythmicity
Three patterns in the development of emotional self-regulation.
1. From infants, who rely almost totally in other people to help them regulate their emotions - to early childhood, when they become increasingly able to self-regulate. 2. Increasing use of cognitive strategies and planful problem solving to control negative emotions. 3. Increasing selection and use of appropriate, effective regulating strategies.
Cultural factors influencing children's temperament and emotional expressions. (5)
1. Genetic: different cultural groups have a different genetic pool that may predict the range of temperaments seen in the group members. 2. Diversity of parenting practices: some cultures may value more or less supportive parenting styles than others, which influences children's expression of emotion. 3. Cultural factors such as valuing independence and emotional self-assertion, or valuing interdependence and emotional regulation for maintaining group well-being. 4. Cultures differ in the degree to which they promote or discourage expression of specific emotions, and these differences are reflected in the parents' socializing practices. 5. Different emotions have different values and perceived usefulness in each culture, and this may influence parents' level of acceptance of children's emotions.
Type of physiological measures (temperament) (3)
1. Measuring heart rate and vagal tone. 2. Brain wave activity measures (EEG) of the frontal lobe 3. Cortisol levels.
Changes in Self-Concept During Middle Childhood
1. More Balanced, less all-or-none descriptions-They emphasize competences instead of specific behaviors 2. Social Comparisons- They understand how their skills compare with their peers - they know they are better a t some things, and less good at others 3. Ideal and Real Self- they form an ideal self and use this ideal self to evaluate their real self. 4. Reference Social Groups- They incorporate other's perceptions of themselves into their self definitions, Encouragement from knowledgeable people that children value and respect also contributes to self-efficacy. It is important to commend a child on their specific ability vs. good job- Children increasingly look to more people beyond the family for information about themselves and reply more on feedback from close friends. 5. Cultural Variations - Recent research shows that in their self-descriptions, U.S. children listed more personal attributes (I like to dance, I am pretty), Chinese children more attributes involving group membership and relationships ( I have a many friends, I am in 2nd grade).
Mary Rothbart 4 temperament types
1. Negative reactivity: negative, active 2. Positive reactivity: positive, active 3. Behavioural inhibition: shying away from others 4. Attention shifting: switching attention
Six components of emotions
1. Neural responses. 2. Physiological factors such as heart rate and hormone levels. 3. Subjective feelings. 4. Cognitions and perceptions that cause or are associated with the neural and physiological responses and subjective feelings. 5. Desire to take action, including desire to escape, approach or change people or things in the environment. 6. Expressive behaviour and cognitive interpretations of, or reactions to, the feeling state.
Parents' discussion of emotions (socializing)
1. Parents who discuss emotions with their children teach them about the meanings of emotions, the circumstances in which they should be expressed, and the consequences of expressing them. 2. Children's temperament and initial understanding of emotion also influence how often or if any of these conversations will happen: parents are more likely to engage in conversation about emotions if the child is already well regulated and expressed a "acceptable" amount of negative emotion. 3. Parents' emotional style + child's temperament = child's coping styles.
Parents' reactions to children's emotions (socializing)
1. Parents who react to their children's negative emotions by dismissing, threatening, being belligerent, invalidating: - children will tend to be less socially and emotionally competent, show lower levels of sympathy for others, less skilled coping with stress, and more prone to negative emotions and problem behaviours. 2. Parents who show support, validation and acceptance of their children's negative emotions by helping them understand and regulate their emotional arousal, and to find ways to express their emotions constructively: - children tend to be better adjusted and more competent both with peers and academically.
Key dimensions of Mary Rothbart model of temperament? (2)
1. Reactivity: how strongly react to new situations, arousability, physiological reactions. 2. Self-regulation: how they deal with their reactivity, attention, avoidance, approach, inhibition.
How do parents socialize their children's emotional development? (3)
1. Role modelling: through their own expression of emotion with their children and other people. 2. Reactions: through their reactions to their children's expressions of emotion. 3. Education: through discussions they have with their children about emotion and emotion regulation.
Attachment style and relationship to temperament.
1. Securely attached: high quality, trusting relationship with parents. - Correlates with: a. More positive emotions, less social anxiety and anger. b. More honesty in their expression of emotion. c. Better understanding of their own emotions. 2. Insecurely attached: relationship with parents is low in trust and support. - Correlates with: a. More negative emotions, more social anxiety b. Less honesty in their expression of emotion. c. Lesser understanding of their own emotions.
ethnic differences in IQ and achievement tests - Asians and Asian Americans
1. typically test 3-6 points higher on IQ tests and consistently do better on achievement tests (especially math and science) than Caucasian children 2. families emphasize academic achievement 3. adolescents prioritize time differently - family and school take precedence over social activities with peers.
The average IQ for many of the larger minority groups in the United States (such as African American, Native American, Hispanic) ranges from ____ points lower than the average IQ of Caucasians.
10 to 15
During puberty approximately how much weight and height do young adolescents add?
10-11 inches and 50-75 pounds
Formal Operational
11+ The capacity for abstract, systematic thinking enables adolescents, when faced with a problem, to start with a hypothesis, deduce testable inferences, and isolate and combine variables to see which inferences are confirmed. Adolescents can also evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real- world circumstances.
WAIS
15 & up.
John Locke
1632-1704 Continuous Nurture Many course of development 17th century English philosopher. Wrote that the mind was a "blank slate" or "tabula rasa"; that is, people are born without innate ideas. We are completely shaped by our environment .
Charles Darwin
1809-1882 He was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection
G. Stanley Hall
1844- 1924 Inspired by Darwin's work, ____ and his well-known student Arnold Gesell (1880- 1961) developed theories based on evolutionary ideas. These early leaders regarded child development as a maturational process— a genetically deter-mined series of events that unfold automatically, much like a flower
Sigmund Freud
1856-1939 developed psychosexual theory, which emphasizes that how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development.
James Mark Baldwin
1861-1934 American psychologist who believed that children developed through a sequence of stages, but granted nature and nurture equal importance.
John Watson
1878-1958 American psychologist who founded behaviorism; classically conditioned LIttle Albert in order to demonstrate that emotions can be learned
Lev Vygotsky
1896-1934; Field: development; Vygotsky investigated child development and how this was guided by the role of culture and interpersonal communication. Vygotsky observed how higher mental functions developed historically within particular cultural groups, as well as individually through social interactions with significant people in a childs life, particularly parents, but also other adults. Through these interactions, a child came to learn the habits of mind of her/his culture, including speech patterns, written language, and other symbolic knowledge through which the child derives meaning and which affected a childs construction of her/his knowledge.
Erik Erikson
1902-1994, Theorist who proposed that as humans develop, they have psycho-social tasks that, if completed, lead to healthy development.
B.F. Skinner
1904-1990 This American behaviorist and inventor built on the classical conditioning theory of Ivan Pavlov and developed what he called Operant Conditioning based on the premise that reinforced behaviors tend to continue, while those that are punished or are not reinforced tend to gradually end.
Urie Bronfenbrenner
1917-2005, Theory of development is an ecological systems theory that stresses the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and the macrosystem. He is credited with creating the theory of human ecology. It is not a stage theory.
Early smiles - first and second months
1st month: fleeting smiles during REM sleep, primarily. 2nd month: smile when stroked gently, when feel like they are controlling an event in the environment (rattle sound, for example). 6-9 weeks: smiles are reliable but involuntary - happen when interacting with others, or when interacting with the environment. Early smiles are reflexive and evoked by a biological state rather by social interaction.
During elementary school years, children can expect to grow how many inches in height and pounds in weight each year?
2-3 inches per year and 5 pounds per year
Preoperational stage
2-7 years Preschool children use symbols to represent their earlier sensori-motor discoveries. Development of language and make- believe play takes place. However, thinking lacks the logic of the two remaining stages.
About how many words do children in middle childhood learn a day?
20 words a day
Disney Land Study
3 and 4 year-olds - Interview children and adults a year after their Disney experience - Even 3 and 4 year-olds can have very accurate and detailed recall of the event * this occurs for events that are exciting and unique, they do not happen frequently and are not generic in any way
Phallic Stage
3-6 years As preschoolers take pleasure in genital stimulation, Freud's Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls arise: Children feel a sexual desire for the other- sex parent and hostility toward the same- sex parent. To avoid punishment and loss of parental love, they suppress these impulses and, instead, adopt the same- sex parent's characteristics and values. As a result, the superego is formed, and children feel guilty whenever they violate its standards.
Not fitting any categories (Chess & Thomas)
35% of the group
flexibility, balance, agility, and force
4 basic motor capacities (228)
Experts estimate that the heritability of intelligence is approximately 50%. This suggests that
50% of the variability in intelligence in a population of individuals is due to variations in genetic inheritance.
Attachment in the Making Phase
6 weeks-6-8 months During this phase, infants respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger. For example, the baby smiles, laughs, and babbles more freely with the mother and quiets more quickly when she picks him up. As infants learn that their own actions affect the behaviour of those around them, they begin to develop a sense of trust— the expectation that the caregiver will respond when signalled— but they still do not protest when separated from her.
middle childhood
6 years --> 11 years
Card Sorting Study
6, 9, 12 year-olds - asked to sort one pack of cards based on shape - One pack plain (single shape) - One pack had 1 piece of irrelevant info (shape & color) - One pack had 2 pieces of irrelevant info (shape, color & number Findings: - Youngest group (6 years) took longer to sort the cards with 1 piece of irrelevant info, and even longer with 2 pieces of irrelevant info - 9 and 12 year olds faster than 6 year-olds but didn't differ significantly from one another - Linked to selective attention: Ability to ignore unnecessary information - to selectively attend gets better with age
Latency Stage
6-11 years Sexual instincts die down, and the superego develops further. The child acquires new social values from adults and same- sex peers outside the family.
Clear Cut Attachment Phase
6-8 months- 18 months-2years Now attachment to the familiar caregiver is evident. Babies display separation anxiety, becoming upset when the adult on whom they have come to rely leaves. Like stranger anxiety ( see pages 405- 406), separation anxiety does not always occur; it depends on infant temperament and the current situation. But in many cultures, separation anxiety increases between 6 and 15 months, suggesting that infants have developed a clear understanding that the caregiver continues to exist when not in view ( Kagan, Kearsley, & Zelazo, 1978). Consistent with this idea, babies who have not yet mas-tered Piagetian object permanence usually do not become anxious when separated from the parent ( Lester et al., 1974). Besides protesting the parent's departure, older infants and toddlers try hard to maintain her presence. They approach, follow, and climb on her in preference to others. And they use her as a secure base from which to explore.
Of these children, who is LEAST likely to experience separation anxiety in the situation described? 8-month-old Gianna is placed in a car seat by her parent who then disappears from her view 13-month-old Nolan walks away from his parent into another room 18-month-old Evan is playing on the floor when his parent leaves the room 15-month-old Cecile is placed into her crib by her parent who then leaves the room
8-month-old Gianna is placed in a car seat by her parent who then disappears from her view
Project Head Start
A U.S. federal early intervention program for economically disadvantaged preschoolers that provides children with a year or 2 of preschool education, along with nutritional and health services, and encourages parent involvement in program planning and children;s learning and development.
Early Head Start
A U.S. federal program that provides infants and toddlers who have serious developmental problems or are at risk for problems because of poverty, with coordinated early intervention services, including child care, educational experiences, parenting education, family social support and health care.
Normal Distribution
A bell shaped distribution that results when individual differences are measured in large samples. Most scores cluster around the mean, or average, with progressively fewer falling toward each extreme.
Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME)
A checklist for gathering information about the quality of children's home lives through observation and parental interview.
Agonist
A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter (i.e. nicotine and ACh). They "fool" the receptor sites.
Antagonist
A chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter (i.e. curare and ACh). Key fits in the lock but doesn't turn.
Which of the following students demonstrates a mastery-oriented style of motivation?
A child who tries harder despite failure at solving some problems
Factor Analysis
A complicated correlational procedure that identifies sets of test items that cluster together, called factors. Used to investigate whether intelligence is one trait or an assortment of abilities.
Computerized Tomography Scan (CT)
A computer-enhanced X-ray of brain structure. Of all the techniques it is the cheapest, but it only gives a 2-D view of the brain.
Electroencephalograph Recording (EEG)
A device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp. Measured in brain waves, the EEG recordings provide an overview of the electrical activity in the brain (different brain wave patterns are associated with different states of mental activity).
Stereotaxic Instrument
A device used to implant electrodes at precise locations in the brain.
Parkinson's
A disease marked by tremors, muscular rigidity, and reduced control over voluntary movements that is caused by decreased levels of dopamine.
Axons
A long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands. They are often very long and branch out to communicate with a number of other cells.
Limbic System (54-56)
A loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the boarder between the cerebral cortex (outer layer of brain) and deeper subcortical areas. It includes parts of the thalamus and hypothalamus, the hippocampus, the amygdala, and other structures.
Which child would be MOST likely to have the highest upper limit of his or her reaction range for intelligence?
A lower-class minority child with an IQ of 95
S
A major in psychology would be an example of _ abilities
Socioeconomic Status
A measure of a family's social position and economic well being that combines 3 related variables; years of education, the prestige of one's job, and the skill it requires, and income.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
A new technique that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain. A coil is used to create a magnetic field that can either increase or decrease the excitability of neurons in the local tissue. It allows for "virtual lesions." Research is usually done by having a subject work on a certain task while a certain part of the brain is suppressed.
object permanence paradigm 2
A not B Paradigm - Two wells are sunken into table. Engage child with toy, then drop into well A. Place covers over each well, restrict hands for a bit and then allow to reach Trial 1: Infant will reach for well A, they understood or remember where toy is Trial 2: Toy dropped again in well A, infant reaches for well A Trial 3: Drop object in well B, if child is between 7-9 months will reach for well A, 9-10 months will start reaching for correct well
Wernicke's Area
A part of the left temporal lobe that plays an important role in the comprehension of language.
Rumination
A perseverative focus on one's own negative emotions and on their causes and consequences, without engaging in efforts to improve one's situation
Genotype
A person's genetic makeup (twins: 100% identical).
Functionalist Approach to Emotion
A perspective emphasizing that the broad function of emotions is to energize behaviour aimed at attaining personal goals.
Developmental Quotient
A score on an infant intelligence test, computed in the same manner as an IQ but labeled more conservatively because it doesn't tap the same dimensions of intelligence measured in older children.
Intelligence Quotient
A score that indicates the extent to which an individuals raw score (number of items passed) on an intelligence test deviates form the typical performance of same age individuals.
Emotional Intelligence
A set of emotional abilities that enable individuals to process and adapt to emotional information, measured by tapping emotional skills that enable people to manage their own emotions and interact competently with others.
Sociomoral Reflection Measure- Short Form ( SRM- SF),
A short- answer questionnaire that assesses moral understanding by asking individuals to rate the importance of moral values posed by 11 brief questions and to write a brief explanation of their ratings. More efficient than Kohlberg's Moral Judgment Interview.
Attention
A state of alertness that allows a person to focus on certain aspects of their environment, basis for all other cognitive processes. - Is the basis for all of cognition. Other cognitive tasks can't be done without using attention - Effective use of attention increases with age. Due to maturation of the brain (prefrontal cortex) and experience in formal settings (e.g. school) (going to school trains children to sit for long periods of time and also includes positive reinforcement) - Playground study - Play grocery store study
Hypothalamus
A structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs. It controls the autonomic nervous system and it serves as a vital link between the brain and the endocrine system. Regulates the 4 F's (fighting, feeding, fleeing, mating), thirst, sexual motivation, and temperature regulation.
Thalamus
A structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex. It is a way station made up of clusters of cell bodies (somas). It integrates information from various senses.
Popular-prosocial children
A subtype of popular children who combine acadmic and social competence
Rejected-withdrawn children
A subtype of rejected chidlren who are passive, socially awkward, and overwhelmed by social anxiety
Rejected-agressive children
A subtype of rejected children who show high rates of conflict, physical and relational aggression, and hyperactive, inattentive, and impulsive behavior
Behavioural inhibition
A temperamentally based style of responding characterized by the tendency to be particularly fearful and restrained when dealing with novel or stressful situations.
Aptitude Test
A test that assesses an individual's potential to learn a specialized activity.
Differential (or discrete) emotions Theory
A theory about emotions, held by Tomkins , Izard and others, in which emotions are viewed as innate and discrete from one another from very early in life, and each emotion is believed to be packaged with a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions
Functionalist Approach
A theory of emotion, proposed by Campos and others, that argues that the basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal. In this view, emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment
enduring self
A view of the self as persisting over time.
Postsynaptic Potential (PSP)
A voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane. They vary in size and they increase or decrease the probability of a neural impulse (the signal that moves through the neuron) in the receiving cell in proportion to the amount of voltage change.
Bidirectional
According to Richard Bell, the relationship between child and parent is _________
A)Mastery- Oriented B) Learned- Helpless
Achievement- Related Attributions A)Success due to high ability Failure due to low effort or difficult task B)Success due to luck Failure due to low ability View of Ability A)Incremental: Can be improved through effort B)Entity: Fixed— cannot be improved through effort Expectancy of Success A)High B)Low Task Goals A)Learning B)Performance Strategies and Behaviour A) Effective metacognitive and self- regulatory skills Persistence at challenging tasks B)Lack of metacognitive and self- regulatory skills Avoidance of challenging tasks
Emotion-related behaviour
Actions or facial expressions related to one's feelings.
Identity Vs. Identity Confusion
Adolescence The adolescent tries to answer the questions, Who am I, and what is my place in society? By exploring values and vocational goals, the young person forms a personal identity. The negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles.
Genital Stage
Adolescence. With puberty, the sexual impulses of the phallic stage reappear. If development has been successful during earlier stages, it leads to marriage, mature sexuality, and the birth and rearing of children. This stage extends through adulthood.
Which of the following would NOT be an example of an educational enrichment program for gifted children?
Advancing children to higher grades in school
Proactive Agression
Aggression in which children act to fulfill a need or desire— obtain an object, privilege, space, or social reward— and unemotionally attack a person to achieve their goal. Also called instrumental aggression.
The man responsible for developing the first intelligence tests designed to predict the school performance of children was
Alfred Binet
Karl Lashley
American psychologist who wanted to find evidence for Pavlov's speculations that memory involved in learning a classically conditioned response would ultimately be explained as a matter of changes in the brain. He believed that memory was "localized"--memory was stored in a specific brain area. He came to the conclusion, however, that memories are not localized but distributed, or stored, throughout the brain.
Asian and American cultural differences in math
American teachers and parents believe in innate, unchangeable ability and use rewards frequently especially in elementary school (can undermine intrinsic motivation), while Asian teachers and parents believe in effort and are better at finding ways to motivate effort (achievement itself is motivator for learning math)
Psychometric Approach
An approach to cognitive development that focuses on outcomes and results and is the basis for intelligence tests designed to assess mental abilities.
Dynamic Assessment
An approach to testing consistent with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development in which an adult introduces purposeful teaching into the testing situation to find out what the child can attain with social support.
Dynamic Assessment
An approach to testing in which an adult introduces purposeful teaching into the testing situation to find out what the child can attain with social support
Standford-Binet Intelligence Scales. Fifth Edition
An individually administered intelligence test, appropriate for ages 2 - adulthood, that is the modern descendant of Alfred Binet's first successful test for children. Measures general intelligence and 5 intellectual factors: fluid reasoning, quantitative reasoning, knowledge, visual-spatial processing and working memory.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV)
An individually administered intelligence test, appropriate for ages 6 through 16, that measures general intelligence and 4 broad intellectual factors: verbal reasoning, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.
Which of the following is an expression of the nurture side of the nature versus nurture argument?
An intellectually stimulating environment can lead to noticeable increases in the IQs of disadvantaged children.
Attribution retraining
An intervention that uses adult feedback to encourage learned-helpless children to believe that they can overcome failure through effort
Attribution Retaining
An intervention that uses adult feedback to encourage learned-helpless children to believe that they can overcome failure through effort....which encourages students to believe they can over-come failure through effort, improves the self- evaluations and task perfor-mance of learned- helpless children. Effective approaches include teaching children to focus less on grades and more on mastering tasks for their own sake and providing instruction in effective strategies and self- regulation.
classification
As part of the concrete operational stage children become more aware of ________ hierarchies
Cultural differences across ethnic groups in IQ and achievement tests
Asian American families' cultural beliefs tend to emphasize academic achievement more than either African American or White families; cultural differences also clearly contribute to observed differences between African American and Caucasian children's test scores - African American children in African American families tended to ask for help more often and give up more easily when faced with a difficult task, while those reared in White families tended to focus on the tasks and be more likely to try some task even if they didn't think they could do it; observed IQ differences among racial or ethnic groups at least to some degree a reflection of cultural bias
problem solving - they are better at solving problems on their own exploration and curiosity attention span and persistence - they seem to be better at focusing their behavior for longer play - they have greater complexity to their play compliance - they are more likely to comply with parental and others' demands and requests peer interactions - they are more likely to have good interactions with their peers, to be well-liked, and so on teacher interaction - they are more mature in their teacher-child interactions behavior problems - they are less likely to have behavior problems resilience - they are better at coping with adversity
Attachment security has been shown to have an effect on:
Playground Study
Attentional ability improves - 3 to 5 year-olds led around playground - Go to 8 locations: - location 3: picture taken - location 7: discover camera is lost - Had to look for camera Findings: - Found that younger kids went right back to location 3 and either gave up or began a haphazard search in areas that were irrelevant or outside of tour - Older kids immediately went back to area 3 and then visited places they had visited after area 3. They didn't give up and searched systematically. Shows: ability changes even between ages 3 and 5
Play grocery store study
Attentional ability improves still - School-Age kids even more planful - Between ages 5 and 9 - 25 items to find at play grocery store as quickly as they could - Found: Older kids scanning where things were before the timer went off and also scanned their list, grouped certain items all before they actually started to shop, shorter time, shorter routes, much more efficient than 5 year-olds. Younger kids did one item at a time down the list
Which of the following individuals would you predict would be MOST likely to have a high-status occupation ,such as being a doctor or lawyer?
Ben, who has an IQ of 135
Bill and Phil have equivalent IQ scores. Bill sees himself as a talented student, while Phil sees himself as a weaker student. It is likely that in school,
Bill will perform better than Phil
Ethologgical view aachment Social Freudian Cognitive
Biology heridety gives child ability to cry in order to survive If you reward a baby who cries with attention it will cry more (WRONG) Innate drive to form attachment Baby cannot become attached until they reconize attaachment figure
Sensorimotor stage
Birth-2 years Infants " think" by acting on the world with their eyes, ears, hands, and mouth. As a result, they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems, such as pulling a lever to hear the sound of a music box, finding hidden toys, and putting objects into and taking them out of containers.
Lengthen
Bones ________
Following the death of their parents ten years ago, identical twins Glenda and Brenda were placed in an understaffed orphanage. Brenda remained in the orphanage, while Glenda was adopted by a loving middle-class couple. Which of the following would be LEAST likely to occur?
Brenda will have an IQ near the upper limit of her reaction range
Look at characteristics of bullies vs. victims Discuss factors that influence children's adjustment to divorce. Cite factors that foster resilience in middle childhood.
Bullies: boys or girls? -physically, relationally aggressive -high status, powerful -popular Victims:- Passive when active behavior expected -give in to demands -lack defenders -overprotected, controlled by parents.
At what age are children able to label a small set of emotional expressions?
By 3 years of age, but have a limited vocabulary for labelling them. For example, may label an emotion as "happy", but don't know other names for happy, such as "joy".
Emergence of Pride
By 3 years of age, children's display of pride is tied to the level of their performance: more pride when achieve difficult tasks than when achieve easy ones.
When does anger emerge?
By 4 to 6 months of age.
When does fear emerge?
By 6 to 7 months of age.
By what ages are all basic emotions in place?
By 7 months of age.
Three-Stratum Theory of Intelligence
Carroll's factor analytic theory which represents the structures of intelligence in 3 tiers: with general intelligence at the top, a 2nd tier of biologically based broad abilities, and a third tier of specific behaviours. The most comprehensive factor-analytic classification of mental abilities to date.
Which of the following six-year-old children would be MOST likely to experience an increase in their IQ over the next few years?
Cathy, who was recently adopted from an understaffed orphanage by loving middle-class parents
Which of the following is NOT included in the definition of mental retardation?
Caused by an organic condition
Glia
Cells found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons. They are much smaller than neurons, but outnumber them 10:1 and they account for over 50% of the brain's volume. They supply nourishment to neurons, help remove neurons' waste products, and provide insulation around many axons. They also play a role in developing the nervous system in the human embryo. Some studies have shown that some glia cells can detect neural impulses and send signals to other glial cells.
Emotion
Characterized by neural and physiological responses, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feeling and the desire to take action.
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another. They are released the vesicles fuse with the membrane of the presynaptic cell and its contents spill into the synaptic cleft. They bind with molecules in the postsynaptic cell at receptor sites.
Active
Child chooses environments they enjoy Increases IQ similarity between biological parents and child
Why is a code of ethical conduct needed for those working with children?
Children are a vulnerable population and you are given locus parents (you represent their parents when they are in your care)
Baillargeon Study
Children as young as 3-4 months know object permanence - Set up: Swinging screen - 180 degree arc, when it hit box: 112 degree arc. - Control conditions: 112 degree arc w/o box, 180 degree arc w/o box - Test conditions: Possible event, Impossible event - Habituating 3-4 month old infants to swinging screen, then changed condition to see which one would lead to dishabituation - placed a box in path of swing - child dishabituated to possible event - Infants actually showed greater dishabitution to impossible event, they were intrigued that the screen was passing through object - Implications: Object permanence develops earlier than Piaget claimed, ways we test for object permanence might be misleading
Psychoanalytic Theory
Children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety.
Learned Helplessness
Children who develop __________ ___________ credit success to external factors, such as luck, and attribute their failures to low ability
In the experiment designed to test if children would feel shame or guilt, how are these two emotions distinctively expressed?
Children who felt shame: hid the doll, avoided the experimenter, and delayed telling the truth. Children who felt guilt: tried to fix the doll right away, did not avoid the experimenter, and told the truth right away.
Controversial Children
Children who get many votes, both positive and negative, on assessments of peer acceptance
Neglected children
Children who seldom mentioned, either positively or negatively, on assessment of peer acceptance
Authoritative
Children whose parens use an _______ child-rearing style feel especiall good about themselves.
Social comparisons
Children's assessments of their own appearance, abilities, and behavior in relation to those of others
In which of the following countries are IQ tests LEAST likely to be used?
China
Inclusive classrooms
Classrooms in which students with learning difficulties learn alongside typical students in a regular eduational setting
Which of the following researchers proposed the notion of stereotype vulnerability to explain ethnic differences in IQ scores?
Claudia Steele
Which statement about the association between emotional development and cognitive development is true? Emotions are independent of cognition, and therefore the two are unassociated. Cognitive development influences children to become less emotional as they develop from infancy through adolescence. Cognitive changes influence the types of stimuli that elicit particular emotional responses. None of the statements is true.
Cognitive changes influence the types of stimuli that elicit particular emotional responses.
Bayley-3
Cognitive scale, language scale, motor scale, social emotional scale (based on parental report), adaptive behaviour scale (based on parental report). Labeled developmental quotient.
Reducing Cultural Bias in Testing
Combine test with assessment of adaptive behaviour, dynamic assessment (focus on learning process, provide feedback, adult - child learning relationship cultivated).
Describe the differences between formal operational and concrete operational thought.
Concrete - good at logical reasoning, hands on (trial and error); Formal operation - logical, applied to things not yet experienced
A group of sixth-graders all took a 100-word spelling test in order to qualify for the city-wide spelling bee contest. If a child needed to score in the top 20% of applicants to qualify, which one of the following students definitely qualified for the spelling bee?
Connor, who placed at the 90th percentile
Frontal Lobe
Controls the movement of muscles - primary motor cortex. Most of this cortex is given to the body parts we have fine control over (i.e. fingers). The prefrontal cortex contributes to memory.
Which of the following is NOT one of the "primary mental abilities" proposed by Thurstone?
Convergent thinking
Attention span and persistence (Mary Rothbart)
Duration of orienting toward objects or events of interest.
Passive
Effect of genotype on Environment Interaction of overlap between genes of child and genes of biological parents Kids who like books are likely to be raised around books because their parents like books. Leads to greater correlation between biological parents and kids than if the kids are adopted
Elaboration
Embellishing information to make it easier to remember
Cite changes in understanding and expression of emotion in middle childhood, including the importance of problem-centered coping and emotion-centered coping for managing emotion.
Emotional Development in middle childhood. 1. Self-conscious - emotions more governed by personal responsibility (no longer dependent on?) 2. Emotional understanding - supported by cognitive development and social experience- before this communication is often in terms of wants or needs (I want, I need, help me) These kids explain emotion by referring to internal states rather than to external events ( I am having sad thoughts) 3. Emotional self-regulation - children start to notice that some kids don't cry when they hurt themselves- prompts them to toughen up (related to peer approval and self-esteem). Emotional self-efficacy
Describe Erikson's stage of industry versus inferiority, noting major personality changes in middle childhood. Describe school-age children's self-concept and self-esteem, and discuss factors that affect their achievement-related attributions.
Erikson's Theory: Industry vs. Inferiority -Children develop a sense of their own competence through mastery of culturally defined learning tasks. Industry: -developing a sense of competence at useful skills -school provides many opportunities Inferiority: - pessimism and lack of confidence in own ability to do things well -family environment, teachers, peers can contribute to negative feelings. Industry vs. inferiority - 4th of erikson's psychosocial stages, during which children develop a sense of their own competence through mastery of culturally defined learning taskts.
Which of the following statements corresponds MOST closely to the position on ethnic differences in average IQ scores presented by Herrnstein and Murray in The Bell Curve?
Ethnic differences in average IQ scores are substantial and are partly genetic in origin.
Social Comparisons
Evaluations of one's own abilities, behaviour, and appearance in relation to those of others.
Resistant Attachment
Even before the separation episode when the caretaker leaves, these infants are often clingy and whiny, and often fail to explore. They are usually quite distressed when their caretakers leave, and when these caretakers return it is difficult to settle these infants down. Their behavior is characterized by a mix of clinginess and anger, with the infant wanting to be held but then struggling to get down and even hitting or pushing their caretakers away. Because of this mix of clinginess and anger, these infants are sometimes described as ambivalently attached. Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and often fail to explore. When the parent leaves, they are usually distressed, and on her return, they combine clinginess with angry, resistive behaviour, struggling when held and some-times hitting and pushing. Many continue to cry and cling after being picked up and can-not be comforted easily. About 10-15% of North American infants are
Crystallized
Every day you gain more information, these are called _________ abilities
Individual Tests
Examiners need training and experience (provide insights about accuracy of score), identify highly intelligent child and also those with learning disabilities.
Positron Emission Tomography Scan (PET)
Examines function in the brain by mapping activity in the brain over time. Radioactively tagged chemicals are introduced into the brain that serve as markers for blood flow. They provide color-coded map indicating which areas of the brain become active when certain tasks are performed.
Which technique analyzes correlations among many variables to identify closely related clusters?
Factor analysis
WARMTH AND RESPONSIVENESS POWERFUL AND COMPETENT models-C CONSISTENCY BETWEEN ASSERTIONS AND BEHAVIOR-
Factors That Increase Modeling
A not B error evidence
Failure not necessarily due to lack of understanding - eye gaze - child still staring at well where object is, reaches to other well because doesn't have enough inhibitory control. Went to well A twice before, hand movement has become automatic response, failure of motor control, not understanding. Prefrontal cortex least developed for infants
Darwin had a view of emotions parallel with the Dimensions Theory. True or False?
False. He was aligned with the Discrete/Differential theories of emotions. Believed they were innate to each species and identifiable by facial expressions.
Emotional self-regulation is more similar between fraternal twins than identical twins. True or False?
False. It is more similar between identical twins, which shows it may have a genetic basis.
Negative temperament always correlates with poor social skills later in life. True or False?
False. Negative temperaments in positive parenting environments tends to produce children who are more sensitive to parent's attempts to socialize positive behaviours, which may lead to higher social and moral competence.
Look at family relationships. Summarize changes in peer sociability during middle childhood, including characteristics of peer groups and friendships
Family relationships- school children continue to rely on their parents' presence, support, and affections, despite spending less time with them. - having family meals is the best predictor of better childhood outcomes including: -significantly better academic success, fewer behavioural problems, better psychological adjustment, and lowered rates of smoking, drinking, drug use, early sexual activity, violence, and suicide attempts. -In middle childhood, the amount of time children spend with parents declines dramatically.
fear and anxiety
Fears of the dark, thunder, and supernatural beings persist into middle childhood, however new concerns arise: Poor academic performance Peer rejection The possibility of personal harm (robbed or shot) Threats to parents' health Media events
Separation Anxiety
Feelings of distress that children, especially infants and toddlers, experience when they are separated, or expect to be separated, from individuals to whom they are emotionally attached
Fiona is 8 years old and has a mental age of 10, based on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Denise is 10 and has a mental age of 12, based on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Using the intelligence quotient scoring system suggested by William Stern,
Fiona would be considered "more" intelligent than Denise.
No difference
Gender differences (male/female): Being more empathetic
Generalized Other
George Herbert Mead ( 1934)He proposed that a psychological self emerges when children adopt a view of the self that resembles others' attitudes toward the child. Mead's ideas indicate that perspective- taking skills— in particular, an improved ability to infer what other people are thinking— are crucial for developing a self- concept based on personality traits. During middle childhood and adolescence, young people become better at " reading" messages they receive from others. As school- age children internalize others' expectations, they form an ideal self that they use to evaluate their real self. As we will see shortly, a large discrepancy between the two can greatly undermine self- esteem, leading to sadness, hopelessness, and depression.
Which of the following statements regarding creativity is TRUE?
Highly creative people generally have above average intelligence.
Some critics argue that ____ use of the term "intelligence" is so broad, encompassing virtually any valued human ability, that it makes the term almost meaningless.
Howard Gardner's
Parent-help strategies (emotional regulation)
Hugging, speaking softly or singing, rocking, removing them from the situation.
Information Processing
Human mind as a symbol manipulating system through which info flows. From the time information is presented to the senses at input until it emerges as a behavioral response at output, info is coded, transformed and organized.
Which of the following statements corresponds most closely to Arthur Jensen's position on ethnic differences in average IQ scores?
IQ differences are a function of the relative nature of the gene pool for different ethnic groups.
Early intervention (enrichment programs beginning in infancy) and IQ
IQ scores were higher at every age, whether children were in a school-age supplementary program or not; scores for both groups declined in elementary school years, but early advantage persisted into young adulthood, and children were less likely to have IQs below 85.
Adoption studies and IQ
IQs of adopted children are better predicted from IQs of their natural parents than their adopted parents; also provide support for an environmental influence in IQ scores because the IQ scores of adopted children are clearly affected by the environment in which they have grown up - children born to poverty-level parents who were adopted into middle-class families typically have IQ scores 10-15 points higher than those of their birth mothers; regardless of social class or education of birth parents, children raised in upper-class homes tended to have IQ scores about 11 points higher than those reared in lower-class families, which children born to upper-class parents had higher IQ scores no matter the home environment
Consequences of Parental Divorce
Immediate- instability, conflict, drop in income -parental stress, disorganization -consequences affected by: age, temperament, sex Long-Term -improve adjustment after 2 years -boys and children with difficult temperaments more likely to have problems -father's involvement affects adjustment.
Describe the basic difference among the following: force, flexibility, balance, and agility.
Improve during middle childhood (around age 7), Girls better with balance and flexibility, boys better with force and agility, More flexible because ligaments are not fully attached
Fluid Intelligence
In Cattell's theory, a form of intelligence that depends primarily on basic information processing skills - ability to detect relationships among stimuli, speed of analyzing information and capacity of working memory. (Decreases with age)
General Intelligence
In Spearman's theory, a common underlying factor believed to influence all aspects of intelligence.
Physical Appearance
In childhood, the self-esteem factor that correlates most strongly with overall self-worth is _____ __________
identity crisis
In complex societies, a temporary period of distress as they experiment with alternatives before settling on values and goals. (Erikson) (314)
self esteem
In developing your self concept you also develop your ______ ______.
Lesioning
Involves destroying a piece of the brain by passing a high-frequency current through an electrode to burn the tissue and disable the structure It allows scientists to see how different parts of the brain effect behavior.
conventional level
Kohlberg's 2nd level of moral development, in which moral understanding is based on conforming to social rules to ensure positive human relationships and societal order. (320)
PRECONVENTIONAL CONVENTIONAL POSTCONVENTIONAL (OR PRINCIPLED)
Kohlberg's Stages of morality LEVEL 1: ________MORALITY At this level, rules are truly external to the self rather than internalized. The child conforms to rules imposed by authority figures to avoid punishment or obtain personal rewards. Thus, morality is self-serving Stage 1: Punishment-and-obedience orientation-The goodness or badness of an act depends on its consequences. The child obeys authorities to avoid punishment. The greater the harm done, the more "bad" the act is. Stage 2: Naïve hedonism-One conforms to rules in order to gain rewards or satisfy personal objectives. Thus, other-oriented behaviors are motivated by the hope of benefiting in return. "You scratch my back and I'll scratch yours." LEVEL 2: _______ MORALITY-The person at this level strives to obey rules and social norms in order to win others' approval or to maintain social order. Social praise and the avoidance of blame have now replaced tangible rewards and punishments as motivators of ethical conduct. Stage 3: "Good boy" or "good girl" orientation-Moral behavior is that which pleases or is approved of by others. The primary goal is to be thought of as a "good" person. Stage 4: Social-order-maintaining morality-The will of society as reflected in law is what's important. What is right is what conforms to the rules of legal authority. The reason for conforming is not a fear of punishment but a belief that rules and laws maintain a social order that is worth preserving. Laws always transcend special interests. LEVEL 3:__________MORALITY-A person in this level defines right and wrong in terms of broad principles of justice, and these might even conflict with written laws or with the dictates of authority figures. In other words, something that is morally right may not be legally proper. Stage 5: The social-contract orientation-At Stage 5, the individual views laws as instruments for expressing the will of the majority of people. Laws that accomplish these ends and are impartially applied are viewed as social contracts that one has an obligation to follow, but laws that are imposed and that compromise human rights or dignity are considered unjust and worthy of challenge. Stage 6: Morality of individual principles or conscience-At this "highest" moral stage, the individual defines right and wrong on the basis of the self-chosen ethical principles of his or her own conscience. These principles are not concrete rules such as the Ten Commandments, but are abstract moral guidelines or principles of universal justice and respect for the rights of all human beings. These transcend any law or social contract that may conflict with them.
preconventional level
Kohlberg's first level of moral development, in which moral understanding is based on rewards, punishments, and the power of authority figures. (320)
Cerebrum (59-64)
Largest part of the brain, it is responsible for most complex mental activities, including learning, remembering, thinking, and consciousness itself. It is divided into 2 hemispheres: Left (Verbal processing, language, etc.) and Right (non-Verbal processing, creativity, etc.).
Performance
Learned-helpless children focus on _______ goals, obtaining positive and avoiding negative evaluation of their fragile sense of ability
Amygdala
Learning of fear and processing of other basic emotional responses, such as aggression.
Lia is less emotionally competent than other children her age, a problem that causes her much difficulty with her peers. Which circumstance is NOT a possible cause of Lia's poor emotional competence? Lia's parents express a great deal of negative emotion in their home. Lia's parents feel unable to cope with her negative emotions. Lia's parents commonly talk to her about emotions. None of the answers is correct.
Lia's parents commonly talk to her about emotions.
CULTURE certainly plays a role in how children see themselves. For example, children in some cultures almost never evaluate themselves as better than others in some way because that kind of behavior is greatly frowned upon. In some cultures, it is just as frowned upon for a child to stand out with high achievement as to dramatically fail. Saying things like "I can run the fastest" or "I am the smartest in my class" are reacted to quite negatively by others. Instead, behavior that fosters and helps the group as a whole is valued. PARENTS play a role. Children who are securely attached to their parents have higher self-esteem. Parents who are warm and involved with their children, who give their children firm guidelines about how to behave but also allow their children some say in what those guidelines are, have children who are confident in their abilities. In contrast, children of parents who are negative toward them, who are uninvolved or ignore them, or who don't give their children firm behavioral guidelines so that the children do not develop good self-control, do not have high self-esteem. PEERS and other children play a role by how they evaluate the child. If they approve of the child, play with her and so on, this fosters high self-esteem. In contrast, children who are teased or belittled by their peers, who are rejected by their peer group, have lower self-esteem. TEACHERS also play a role. The way they treat the child is going to influence self-esteem. Do they treat the child with respect? Do they value the child's achievements? Or do they constantly put the child down, telling them they are poor students, slow to understand, and so on? As we shall see, there can be subtle and completely unintentional cues that influence children's self-esteem. THE CHILD'S own comparisons of himself with others is also important. How does the child see himself in comparison with other children? Is he generally better at reading than his classmates? Better at playing hockey and other sports? Is he about as good at figuring things out as most other kids?
Lots of factors influence children's self-esteem. list them..
Normative Approach
Measures of behaviour are taken on large numbers of individuals and age- related averages are computed to represent typical development.
Thomas & Chess
Men that developed the three types of temperaments in babies: easy, slow to warm, difficult
Mental Hardware
Mental and neural structures that are built-in and that allow the mind to operate
Describe the components of cognitive self-regulation.
Metacognition and information processing improves, planning, use of attention strategies
Generativity Vs. Stagnation
Middle Adulthood Generativity means giving to the next generation through child rearing, caring for other people, or productive work. The person who fails in these ways feels an absence of meaningful accomplishment.
When do students consistently use memory strategies?
Middle childhood
In which of the following cases is the correlation between IQ scores the lowest?
Non-twin siblings reared apart
A group of high IQ students are found to have larger brains than a group of low IQ students. From this, we can conclude that
None of the above can be concluded from this finding
Peer groups
Peer contact contributes to perspective taking and understanding of self and others, which enhance peer interaction. -Children form peer groups, collectives that generate unique values and standards for behaviour You also begin to see a social structure form -one that includes leaders and followers -The "peer culture" of a peer group typically consists of a specialized vocab., dress code, and place to "hang out".
Group-administered tests
Permit large numbers of students to be tested at once and are useful for instructional planning and for identifying children who require more extensive evaluation with individually adminstered tests
Early Childhood (2-5) Middle Childhood (6-11) Adolescence (12-17)
Physical appearance-My hair is blond. Typical actions -I play Star Wars a lot. Possessions-I have a dog named Darth. Competence-I can run fast. Physical appearance-I have brown hair and brown eyes. Activities-I play basketball with my friends. Preferences (likes and dislikes) -I LOVE playing hockey. Social comparison-I'm almost the smartest boy in the class. Political ideology-I am a liberal. Personality traits-I am ambitious. Self-awareness-I don't know who I am. Future orientation-I want to be a teacher some day.
Conservation
Physical attributes of an object remain unchanged even if outward appearance is different
PREMORAL HETERONOMOUS AUTONOMOUS
Piaget proposed that children pass through different stages in their moral thinking. Piaget's Stages THE ___________ PERIOD-Children who are under five years of age show little concern or awareness of rules or moral behavior. _____________MORALITY (for children approximately 5-10 years of age)-Morality is under the authority of others. Children in this stage see the rules of behavior as passed down by authority figures who have the power to punish. They focus on objective consequences of behavior rather than intention, and thus the child who broke more dishes, regardless of intent, is the naughtier. ____________ MORALITY (for children 10 years and older)-With increasing cognitive maturity and a gradual release from adult control, children come to realize that social rules are arbitrary agreements that can be challenged and even changed with the consent of the people to whom they apply. They also feel that rules can be violated in the service of human needs. For example, they now believe that it is acceptable for a person to speed in a medical emergency because there are extenuating circumstances in this case. Judgments of right and wrong now depend more on the person's intent rather than the objective consequences of their actions.
concrete operational stage
Piaget's third stage, during which thought is logical, flexible, and organized in its application to concrete information. (capacity for abstract thinking is not yet present - spans 7-11 years) (231)
Hippocampus
Plays a role in memory processes. Some believe it is responsible for consolidation of memories for factual information.
Helping Rejected children
Positive social skills: coaching, modeling, reinforcing improve academic achievement -Most interventions to help rejected children involve coaching, modeling, and reinforcing positive social skills. -rejected children need help attributing their peer difficulties to internal, changeable causes. Intervene with harsh parenting practices- talk about gender identity in schools- from diversity lecture= suicide
Which of the following is NOT one of the primary purposes of intelligence testing?
Predicting income and success.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Process of adaptation underlies cognitive development - Four major tenets of theory: - Particular goals need to be met - Stages can't be skipped (can't regress either) - Order of stages is invariant - Maturational and environmental factors play a role (nature v. nurture) * ages are approximate and based on norms, the theory corresponds to brain development * adults are necessary to model and teach new behavior, but you cannot advance a child cognitively until they're ready - Stages: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational
Pros and cons of physiological measures (measuring temperament)
Pros: - Very objective and unlikely to be biased. Cons: - There is no way to tell whether the process reflected by physiological measures are a cause or a consequence of the child's emotion and behaviour in the situation.
In the first half of the 20th century, a strong current of racial and class prejudice supported the idea that IQ tests measured innate ability and that "undesirable" groups scored poorly because of their genetic inferiority. This development BEST reflects which of the following themes of your textbook?
Psychology evolves in a sociocultural context.
Developmental
Psychopathology - applies the insights gained from studying normal development to children who suffer from psychological disorders.
Number conservation task
Quarters task - Usually pass by age 4, easiest task - 2 parallel lines of quarters then ask a non-leading question, "are they same or does one have more", stretch out one of lines and repeat question
General intelligence
Reasoning ability, along with an array of separate scores measuring specific mental abilities
Peer acceptance
Refers to likeability-the extent to which a child is viewed by a group of emates, such as classmates, as a worthy social partner
Parietal Lobe
Registers the sense of touch - the primary somatosensory cortex. Also involved in integrating visual input and monitoring body's position in space.
Rhythmicity (Mary Rothbart)
Regularity and predictability of the child's bodily functions such as eating and sleeping.
external socializing agents; internal, self-induced methods
Regulating oneself (emotionally and behaviorally) shifts from _________ to ________.
rehearsal
Repetition of items to be remembered - Younger kids don't use this spontaneously - Study with 6 and 10 year-olds, 10 year-olds show significantly better recall than 6 year-olds - could just have improved with age, so they test this by dividing 6 year-olds in half and tell one half about rehearsal, this secures evidence for rehearsal, but unless your remind them they will forget to use this memory strategy next time despite being able to remember the strategy itself
Componential Analysis
Research that combines the psychometric and information-processing approaches in an effort to identify relationships between aspects (or components) of information processing and children's intelligence test performance.
Development of Intelligence - Immediate Environment
Resources and parental involvement affect intelligence Group intuition and intellectual stimulation at home help boost intelligence
Conservation
Reversibility and decentration show children in the middle childhood stage now under ________
Which of the following statements BEST reflects current expert recommendations regarding the identification of gifted children?
Schools should not rely too heavily on IQ tests to select gifted children.
Thyroid Gland
Secretes hormone thyroxin, which regulates metabolism. Overactive thyroids cause sudden weight loss and insomnia. Not enough thyroxin cause extreme weight gain and desire to always sleep.
Infant self-recognition in a mirror. Infant use of labels for the self.
Self-recognition in Infancy How do we know when children begin to develop a concept of self? This is hard to answer, but two ways are commonly used.
Protective Factor for suicide in adolescence
Sports participation: - Stayed in sports: lower risks of suicide and suicidal ideation/attempts. - Discontinued: higher risk, because of the loss of the environment, team, etc. - Never had it: less risk than those who stopped playing, but higher than those who always played.
When do self-conscious emotions emerge?
Start at around 15 to 18 months. Fully developed by 3 years of age.
Selective smiles
Starts at 7 months. Smiling primarily at familiar people, and refusing to smile at strangers. This selective smiling tends to make parents feel special and make the bond stronger.
Investment Theory of Creativity
Sternberg and Lubart's theory, in which an individuals investment in novel projects depends on diverse cognitive, personality, motivational, and environmental resources, each of which must be present to catalyze creativity.
Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence
Sternberg's theory, which states that intelligent behaviour involves balancing analytic intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence to achieve success in life, according to one's personal goals and the requirements of one's cultural community.
Internal feeling states
Subjective experience of emotion
Identity achievement Identity moratorium Identity foreclosure Identity diffusion
The Four Identity Statuses _____________ Identity- achieved individuals have already explored alternatives and are committed to a clearly formulated set of self- chosen values and goals. They feel a sense of psychological well- being, of sameness through time, and of knowing where they are going. _____________Moratorium means " delay or holding pattern." These individuals have not yet made definite commitments. They are in the process of exploring— gathering information and trying out activities in an effort to find values and goals to guide their lives. _______________ Identity- foreclosed individuals have committed them-selves to values and goals without exploring alternatives. They accept a ready- made identity chosen for them by authority figures— usually parents but sometimes teachers, religious leaders, or romantic partners. ____________ Identity- diffused individuals lack clear direction. They are neither committed to values and goals nor actively trying to reach them. They may never have explored alternatives or may have found the task too threatening and overwhelming.
Slow to warm up, Poor, Good
The ___________ CHILD is particularly shy about new experiences, and withdraws from them. This withdrawal is not the high intensity reaction of the difficult child but rather a quieter one. This child has particular difficulty adjusting to new situations. _______ fit—There are two sorts of parents who exacerbate this child's difficulties. Parents who are impatient with the child's withdrawal reaction to novelty and who push the child. The more they push, the more the child withdraws, and then parents push some more. Pretty soon you get a child who is seriously withdrawn. Parents who immediately withdraw a child from new situations as soon as they see that the child is uncomfortable. Unfortunately, the child then never gets a chance to adapt to this new situation, and thus their chance to learn new things is limited for them by their parents. Therefore, they arrive at school with fewer background experiences to draw from and they are often handicapped by this. _______ fit—Parents who understand that the child needs time to adjust to new situations at their own pace and speed. They allow the child this time, while being supportive. They don't limit their child's experiences, but they do let the child take time to become comfortable in the new situation.
Difficult child, Poor, Good
The _____________ really stresses caretakers. The child often has temper tantrums and reacts extremely negatively to new experiences. ________ Fit—Parental behaviour that exacerbates problems: impatient parents who lose their tempers in return, and who are inconsistent and harsh in their reactions to the child's behaviour. What is the outcome? Children who act out even more and parents who in turn become even more frustrated and coercive. Chess and Thomas found that children with this combination of difficult temperament and care taking environment were more likely to end up with behaviour problems and have difficulty in school. ________ fit—Parental behaviour that helps difficult children cope: very patient parents who seldom lose their tempers in response to child emotional outbursts, and who are firm and consistent about enforcing rules of behaviour.
Social Competence
The ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others
Social competence
The ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others.
Creativity
The ability to create work that is original yet appropriate; something that others have not yet thought of but is useful in some way
Decentration
The ability to focus on several aspects of a problem at once and relate them.
Sympathetic Division
The branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body's resources for emergencies. It creates the fight-or-flight response. It slows the digestive process and drains blood from the periphery, lessening bleeding in case of injury. It also triggers the release of hormones that ready the body for exertion.
Perspective Talking
The capacity to imagine what other people may be thinking and feeling.....improves greatly from childhood to adolescence, as Selman's five- stage sequence indicates. Between 6 and 8 years, children understand that prior knowledge affects a person's ability to understand new information and that people's preexisting beliefs can affect their view-points. During adolescence, recursive thought is mastered. ¦ The ability to understand others' viewpoints contributes to many social skills. Angry, aggressive young people have trouble imagining the thoughts and feelings of others. Interventions that teach perspective- taking skills help reduce antisocial behaviour and increase prosocial responding.
Goodness of Fit
The degree to which an individual's temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment
Spatial Reasoning
The examples of an improved sense of direction and the ability to draw cognitive maps illustrates a childs improved ______ ______
How was the Visual Cliff experiment used to test Social Referencing?
The experimenters asked the mother on the other side of the cliff to display different emotions through facial expressions, and noted how many infants crossed the cliff. Emotions mothers expressed: interest, joy, sadness, fear, anger. At 12 months, if mom expressed such emotions, % of infants crossed: - Fear: 0% - Anger:11% - Sadness: 33% - Interest: 73% - Joy: 74%
Fixed view of pesonality traits, overly high self-esteem & social world in which people are sorted into groups
The extent to which children hold racial and ethnic biases vareis depending on the the following 3 personal and situational factors:
Stereotype threat
The fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype, which can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance
child sexual abuse
The internet and mobile phone have become avenues through which other adults commit sexual abuse - ie pornography (grooming them for sexual acts offline. Often they pick out children who are unlikely to defend themselves or to be believed physically weak, emotionally deprived, socially isolated, or affected by disabilities.
Forebrain (53-64)
The largest and most complex region of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.
Dendrites
The parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information. Multiple dendrites from a single neuron branch out to form dendritic trees.
Describe cognitive advances and limitations during the preoperational stage.
The preoperational stage spans the years 2 to 7, the most obvious change is an extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic, activity. advances: language is most flexible, make believe play strengthens newly acuired representational schemes, drawing can serve as symbols, improved planning and spatial understanding. limitations: egocentrism, inablity to conserve, cant hierarchial classification, centration, irreversiabililty
internalization:
The process of adopting the attributes or standards of other people and taking these standards as one's own.
Cognitive self-regulation
The process of continuosly monitoring progress toward a goal, checking outcomes, and redirecting unsuccessful efforts
Electrical Charge
The resting potential is a negative 70 millivolts, and the action potential creates a less negative or even positive charge in the cell.
Midbrain (51-52)
The segment of the brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain. Contains an area that is concerned with integrating sensory processes (such vision and hearing). It contains a system of dopamine-releasing neurons that is involved in the performance of voluntary movements.
Developmental psychopathology
The study of how disorders arise and change with time, where disruption of early skills can affect later development
Social Referencing
The use of parent's or other adult's facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous or possibly threatening situations
Person Perception
The way individuals size up the attributes of people with whom they are familiar.
Help with attention
Theory of mind around age 3, Inhibition/inhibitory control comes in middle childhood, Information processing skills
Which of the following statements regarding acceptable levels of test reliability is accurate?
There are no absolute guidelines about acceptable levels of reliability.
Which of the following statements BEST reflects current thinking regarding the relationship between creativity and mental illness?
There may be a correlation between major creative achievement and vulnerability to mood disorders.
"infant IQ tests"
These asses primarily sensory and motor skills, as well as some more clearly cognitive items, such as measuring an aspect of object permanence; what is being measured does not seem to be the same as what is tapped by commonly used intelligence tests for children and adults (not much prediction of later IQ scores or school performance, but hepful in identifying infants and toddlers with serious developmental delays
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
These infants seem to be the most insecure of all. They have no coherent pattern to their behavior. Rather, they show confused and contradictory behavior. They look dazed, and often freeze in the middle of their movements. They also often seem fearful. This pattern reflects the greatest insecurity. At reunion, these infants show confused, contradictory behaviours— for example, looking away while the parent is holding them or approaching the parent with flat, depressed emotion. Most display a dazed facial expression, and a few cry out unexpectedly after hav-ing calmed down or display odd, frozen postures. About 5-10% of North American infants have a
Advoidant Attachment
These infants seem to pay little attention to the caretaker before he or she leaves, and when the caretaker leaves, they show little distress. An important characteristic of these children is that when their caretakers return, these infants avoid them or increase their distance from them. They look away, or are very slow to greet their parents if they pay any attention to them at all. These infants seem unresponsive to the parent when she is pres-ent. When she leaves, they usually are not distressed, and they react to the stranger in much the same way as to the parent. During reunion, they avoid or are slow to greet the parent, and when picked up, they often fail to cling. About 15-20% of North American infants are
Secure Attachment
These infants use their attachment figure (their mother, father, or other consistent caretaker) as a secure base, and thus they readily play when the parent or other attachment figure is around. They are less likely to cling or whine, but play happily. They are upset when the attachment figure leaves and often cry, and readily approach the parent when he or she returns, seeking physical contact. They are easily comforted and easily re-engaged in play as long as the attachment figure is there. They typically are upset when they are left alone and are generally not much comforted by the stranger when she enters. However, they enthusiastically approach their attachment figure when he or she re-enters, to be comforted again. These infants use the parent as a secure base. When separated, they may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is absent and they prefer her to the stranger. When the parent returns, they actively seek contact, and their crying is reduced immediately. About 65% of North American infants are
Which of the following is true about children who experience learned helplessness?
They explain their failures as a lack of ability.
Convergent Thinking
Thinking that involves arriving at a single correct answer to a problem; type of thinking emphasized on an intelligence test.
Divergent Thinking
Thinking that involves generating multiple and unusual possibilities when faced with a task or problem.
adrenal glands
This gland is located on the kidneys, they release hormones that trigger the body to respond to emergencies and high stress
Thyroid Gland
This produces hormones that regulate metabolism, body heat, and bone growth
pituitary gland
This produces hormones which regulate growth from infancy to adulthood and the amount of water in the blood
Pancreas
This produces the hormones insulin and glucagon which control the level of glucose in the blood
Two Models Of Temperament
Thomas & Chess . Rothbart
Adolescents from lower socio-economic levels are more prone to major clinical depression. True or False.
True. They are up to 2.5 times more likely to experience depression, in Canada and in the U.S.
Sociodramatic play Rough & tumble play
Two important categories of play
girls; boys
Two years after divorce and 6 years after divorce ______ do metter than _______
Contexts
Unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change.
Rovee-Collier
Uses operant conditioning procedures to explore development of recognition memory - Worked with infants 3 months of age in lab with crib set up with a bumper pad and mobile, at this point there is no ribbon attached to the mobile. At first when she places child in crib, for first 3 minutes she watches to see how many kicks (base rate kicking) the child makes - Next tied ribbon to baby's ankle (mobile now makes a sound or moves, 20 minutes of training (experience causes natural kicking to turn to purposeful kicking) - Come back to lab a week later and ribbon is no longer attached to mobile and measures kicking and compares to base rate kicking - At two weeks they've lost that memory and don't kick above base-rate, but they can be reminded, take baby 1 day before 2 week period and place in crib and shake mobile, refreshed memory * Memory is very specific in nature. If she changes bumper pad, changes context, won't trigger memory. Same with mobile, if changes pattern on mobile recognition memory goes away.
According to Howard Gardner, IQ tests have generally emphasized which of the following?
Verbal and mathematical skills
Socialcultural Theory
Vygotsky's theory, in which children acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society.
if it is DELAYED, if it is INCONSISTENT, if it is DELIVERED BY A COLD, ALOOF, OR PUNITIVE PARENT, and if it is PERCEIVED AS ARBITRARY rather than accompanied by cognitive rationales.
What Factors DECREASE the Effectiveness of Punishment?
IMMEDIATE ADMINISTRATION CONSISTENT PUNISHMENT WARMTH COGNITIVE RATIONALES (inductive reasoning)
What Factors INCREASE the Effectiveness of Punishment
Culture, child-rearing practices, messages from adults, and attributions
What are 4 major influences on self-esteem
Writing & Drawing
What are some fine motor skills that improve in middle childhood?
flexibility, balance, agility, & force
What are some gross motor skills that improve during middle childhood?
Popular, Rejected, Controversial, & Neglected
What are the 4 peer acceptance categories?
Conservation, classification, seriation, & spatial reasoning
What are the four major components of Piaget's Concrete Operational stage?
Depression & Anxiety disorders
What are two examples of internalizing disorders?
Autism & Asperger's
What are two examples of pervasive developmental disorders?
( 1) opportunity to establish a close relationship, ( 2) quality of caregiving, ( 3) the baby's characteristics, and ( 4) family context, including parents' internal working models.
What factors might influence attachment security? Researchers have looked closely at four important influences:
Asthma
What is the most common chronic disease?
...
When dividing money earned from selling children's art among three child artists— two white and one black— the fourth graders gave more money to a productive black artist ( who countered a stereotype) than to a productive white artist and less money to a needy black artist ( who conformed to a stereo-type) than to a needy white artist. In both instances, the fourth graders seemed to engage in subtle, unin-tentional prejudice.
Embarrassment Shame Guilt Envy Pride
When infants are between 1 ½ and 3 years of age, they begin to display secondary (or complex) emotions. These are also called self-conscious emotions because they involve injury to or enhancement of our sense of self:
Sternberg
Who created the triarchic theory of intelligence?
Yarrow
______ found a relationship between a mother's satisfaction and employment, and the type of relationship that existed between mother and child. Mothers who were satisfied with what they were doing (whether homemakers or working outside the home) were more likely to have good relationships with their children. So, it didn't matter whether the mothers were at home full-time or not; if the mother was happy with what she was doing, she was more likely to interact in positive ways with her children. Likewise, mothers who were externally employed but unhappy about working outside the home also had similar good relationships with their children. The only group that had a significantly worse relationship with their children was the dissatisfied homemakers. Why did mothers who were unhappy at their jobs and mothers who were unhappy with staying home with their children have such different relationships with their children? Women who are unhappy with being in the work force typically want to spend their time at home with their children. So when they are with them, they are loving, supportive, and stimulating. But if a mother is a homemaker not because she wants to be there but because she is told that she must be there, that that is what a mother does, that it is her duty, who can she take her frustrations out on? The children, of course. No one else is there. So, if you don't want to stay home with the children but feel you should out of a sense of duty or because it is what mothers are "supposed" to do, DON'T. It is far better for your relationship with your children as well as for yourself if you don't. No one gains by maternal dissatisfaction and unhappiness, least of all the children for whom the sacrifice is being made.
Permissive
______ parenting on the other hand is very warm and very nurturing but sets very little limits and provides very little guidance for behavior. It's a kind of laissez-faire approach to parenting.
Authoritarian
______ parenting tends to be very strict but more aloof and sometimes even hostile. It's a kind of do it because I said so approach to parenting.
Hydrocephaly may lead to mental retardation because of
a buildup of cerebrospinal fluid that destroys brain tissue.
limbic system
a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
fluid intelligence
a form of intelligence that depends primarily on basic information-proccesing skills-ability to detect relationships among stimuli, speed of analyzing information, and capacity of working memory
myelin sheath
a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
tip-of-the tongue (TOT) experience
a memory phenomenon that involves the sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long-term memory, but being temporarily unable to retrieve it.
misinformation effect
a memory-distortion phenomenon in which a person's existing memories can be altered if the person is exposed to misleading information
the method of loci
a mnemonic device in which you remember items by visualizing them at specific locations in a familiar setting
stage model of memory
a model describing memory as consisting of three distinct stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
semantic network model
a model that describes units of information in long-term memory as being organized in a complex network of associations
reticular formation
a nerve netwrok in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
Deviation IQ is defined by how much
a person's score on an intelligence test deviates from the average score for other people their age.
Leo wants to become a fighter pilot, and he is asked to complete a test that is designed to determine if he has the interests and the values typically found in fighter pilots. In this example, the test that Leo is asked to complete would be classified as
a personality test
synapse
a region where nerve impulses are transmitted and received - encompassing the axon terminal of a neuron that releases neurotransmitters in response to an impulse - an extremely small gap across which the neurotransmitters travel, and the adjacent membrane of an axon - dendrite - or muscle or gland cell with the appropriate receptor molecules for picking up the neurotransmitters.
Any psychological test should be seen as
a sample of a person's behavior.
script
a schema for the typical sequence of an everyday event
Large discrepancies between verbal and performance scales (verbal lower than performance) on a Wechsler IQ test suggests
a specific learning problem.
Factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score
Mental retardation is currently defined as
a subaverage general mental ability accompanied by deficiencies in everyday adaptive skills.
Stereotype threat
a subtle sense of pressure members of a particular group feel when they are attempting to perform well in an area in which their group is characterized by a negative stereotype; in order to avoid confirming the stereotype they avoid putting forth their best effort, because to fair after having put forth one's best effort would mean that the stereotype was true; appears to have a smaller effect on children's test performance than adults'
fMRI
a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function.
MRI
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain.
recognition
a test of long-term memory that involves identifying correct information out of several possible choices; "multiple choice tests"
cued recall
a test of long-term memory that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue; "fill-in-the-blank" questions
recall
a test of long-term memory that involves retrieving information without the aid of retrieval cues; also called free recall
triarchic theory of intelligence
a theory advanced by Robert Sternberg, proposing the existence of 3 types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.
Display Rules
a. A social group's informal norms about when, where and how much one should show emotions and when and where displays of emotion should be suppressed or masked by displays of other emotions. b. Starting in the elementary school years, children increasingly understand usefulness of hiding true emotions. c. Pro-social motives for hiding true feelings: such as to not hurt someone else's feelings. d. Self-protecting motives for hiding true feelings: such as to avoid being teased. e. Display rules are different across culture and for different genders. f. Parents' beliefs and behaviours - which often reflect culture - likely contribute to children's understanding and use of display rules.
Children's ability to identify and label emotion in others.
a. By 3 months, infants can distinguish facial expression of happiness, surprise, and anger. b. By 7 months, they are able to identify also fear, sadness and interest. c. By 5-7 months, they start to perceive emotional expression as meaningful, and also to demonstrate that they can relate facial expression of emotion and emotional tones of voice to events in the environment. d. By 14 months, children are able to apply information gathered through social referencing even an hour later. e. Children better understand social referencing if they see both vocal and facial expression cues, but vocal cues alone are better than facial cues alone. f. By 3 years, children are able to label a narrow range of basic emotions. The ability and complexity of emotions they can label increases over time. g. Ability to label emotions helps children respond appropriately to others and their own emotions.
Children's understanding of real and false emotions.
a. By age 3: children show occasional attempts to mask their won negative emotions. b. By age 5: understanding of false emotions improves considerably. c. Between 4 and 6, children from different cultures show similar level of understanding of how people can be misled by facial expressions. d. Understanding of Display Rules of the social group help children improve understanding of false emotions. e. Children also increasingly understand the signs of someone who is lying about how they feel, such as looking away, or changing tone of voice, and use this knowledge to better hide their own emotions. f. Increasing cognitive capacity as well as social integration help children better understand Display Rules and false emotions.
Anger and sadness emergence
a. By the first year, children display anger very clearly and more frequently. b. Expression of anger increases until 16 months of age. c. During the 2nd year, as they are more able to control the environment, they tend to show anger when control is taken away. d. Often show sadness in the same situations they show anger. e. Such negative emotions decrease for most children at around the second year. f. Decrease may be due to ability to express themselves through language, and ability to better control expression of negative feelings.
Children's ability to understand the causes and dynamics of emotion.
a. Children's understanding of the kinds of emotions that certain situations tend to evoke in others helps them regulate their own responses. b. By age 3: children can identify situations that evoke happiness. c. By age 4-5: can identify situations that evoke sadness, anger, fear, or surprise. d. By age 7: identify situations that evoke complex emotions such as pride, embarrassment, guilt, shame and jealousy. e. Ability to understand that memories evoke emotions, as well as affect behaviour in the present starts at 3 and increases up to 5 years old. f. Children in elementary school and beyond increase their understanding of decreased emotional intensity over time, experiencing of two or more emotions at the same time, and cognitive mechanisms to increase or reduce fears and modulate positive/negative emotions. g. By age 10: understand emotional ambivalence, and realize that people can have a mixed feelings about events, others and themselves.
Self-conscious emotions
a. Complex, higher level emotions. b. Emotions such as: guilt, shame, embarrassment, pride, and envy. c. Related to our sense of self and consciousness of others' reactions to us. d. Require self-concept, a certain amount of cognitive ability, social skills and self-awareness. e. Crucial for behaviour regulation, keeps our behaviour in check. f. Determined by cultural context.
Pattern of self-regulation development: from parents to self-regulation
a. Mothers are often seen trying to calm their infants down, by singing, rocking, talking, caressing. b. By 6 months of age, infants show signs of rudimentary self-regulation and self-soothing. c. Other strategies emerge with increased motor and attention control: looking away, distracting themselves. d. Become less likely to seek comfort from parents as they get older. e. Language: increasing ability to negotiate or discuss situations instead of outbursting negative emotions. f. Strategies emerge from increasing maturation of neurological structures: frontal lobes, central to effortfully managing attentions and inhibiting thoughts and behaviours. g. Self-regulation emerges also as a way of complying with what adults seem to expect from them. h. 2-years-old: increasing ability to regulate motor behaviour
Theory of mind research indicates that by age 3, children realize that a. a person can think about something without seeing it, touching it, or talking about it b. people continue to think while they are waiting or otherwise not doing something c. people do not always behave in ways that are consistent with their desires d. if you "know" something you are more certain than if you "guessed"
a. a person can think about something without seeing it, touching it, or talking about it
Cross-cultural research demonstrates that a. conservation is often greatly delayed in nonindustrialized cultures b. concrete operational thought emerges only in formally schooled cultures c. brain development is largely responsible for the emergence of conservation d. concrete operational thought appears at approximately the same age around the world
a. conservation is often greatly delayed in nonindustrialized cultures
According to Erikson, the negative outcome of early childhood is an ____ that causes children to feel too much ____. a. overly strict superego; guilt b. overly indulgent id; pleasure c. undifferentiated ego; confusion d. unrestrained id; greed
a. overly strict superego; guilt
Sibling rivalry can be reduced if a. parents make an effort not to compare their children b. children know that sibling conflict in the home will lead to punishment c. one parent pays attention to one child and the other parent pays attention to the other child d. children are encouraged to develop common activities and interests
a. parents make an effort not to compare their children
During the preschool years, empathy becomes an important motivator of a. prosocial behavior b. identity achievement c. secure attachment d. self-esteem
a. prosocial behavior
Research on child sexual abuse indicates that a. the abuser is most often a parent or someone the parent knows well b. most sexually abused children experience only a single incident c. both boys and girls are equally likely to be sexually abused d. reported cases are highest in adolescence
a. the abuser is most often a parent or someone the parent knows well
transitive inference
ability to seriate - or order items along a quantitative dimension - mentally. (232)
reversibility
ability to think through a series of steps in a problem and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point. (231)
schemes
actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
Rejected children
actively disliked by peers, overly aggressive bully, misunderstands or misread social information
imaginary audience
adolescent's belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern. (303)
decision making
adolescents often do not think rationally. (304)
intimacy
adolescents seek psychological closeness, trust and mutual understanding from friends. (326)
Convincing evidence for the role of environmental influences on intelligence is provided by studies that compare
adopted children to their adoptive parents.
friendship
agree-on in which children like each other's personal qualities and respond to one another's needs and desires / trust becomes the defining feature / more selective and may only have a handful of good friends, and their friendships last longer than they were in preeschool
Creativity test items that give respondents a starting point and then require them to generate as many possibilities as they can in a short period of time are scored on the basis of
all of these things
Nine-year-old Simpson is very emotionally understanding and empathetic. He probably
also has favorable social relationships and prosocial behavior
dynamic assessment
an approach consistent with Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development, in which purposeful teaching is introduced into the testing situation to find out what the child can attain with social support. (244)
Francis has applied for admission to a computer science program, and one of the requirements for admission is the completion of a test that measures sequencing skills and abstract reasoning skills. Her score on this test will be a major factor in the decision about whether to admit her to the program. In this case, the test that Francis is scheduled to take would be classified as
an aptitude test
In trying to make a decision about a career that would fit your abilities and interest, you would probably want to take a test that would measure your potential or talent for specific kinds of activities. A test that would measure this sort of potential would MOST likely be
an aptitude test
flynn effect
an increase in IQ from one generation to the next
dynamic assessment
an innovation consistent with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, the adult introduces purposeful teaching into testing situation to find out what the child can attain with social support
(Mental age/chronological age) ´ 100 yields
an intelligence quotient
Which of these stimuli is LEAST likely to elicit a smile in a 7-month-old infant? a smiling stranger an interesting object being able to control a particular event a parent's tickle on the tummy
an interesting object
According to Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence, someone who is efficient at processing information and who performs well on conventional tests designed to measure reasoning and logical-mathematical abilities should score high in
analytic intelligence.
Supporting an argument by misusing a general lack of knowledge or information concerning an issue is referred to as the
appeal to ignorance fallacy.
whole-language approach
approach to beginning reading instruction that parallels children's natural language learning and keeps reading materials whole and meaningful. (238)
child care
approx 5 million 5-14 yo in the U.S. are self-care children who regularly look after themselves for some period of time after school / younger children who spend many hours alone have emotional and social difficulties
autonomy
at adolescence, a sense of oneself as a separate, self-governing individual. Involves relying more on oneself and less on parents for direction and guidance and engaging in careful, well-reasoned decision-making. (325)
Research on child maltreatment shows that a. most parents who were abused as children become abusers b. abusive parents tend to respond to stressful situations with high emotional arousal c. abuse depends more strongly on children's characteristics than on parents' characteristics d. all of the above
b. abusive parents tend to respond to stressful situations with high emotional arousal
During middle childhood, children's understanding of emotions changes in that they become aware that a. others' facial expressions indicate their feelings b. people can feel more than one emotion at a time c. pride and guilt occur only when others are present d. basic emotions are related to personal responsibility
b. people can feel more than one emotion at a time
During middle childhood, child-invented games usually involve a. primarily mental activities, such as talking and memory b. simple physical skills and a sizable element of luck c. physical skills that challenge them to their limits d. one-on-one competitions of individual ability
b. simple physical skills and a sizable element of luck
Gifted children tend to
be able to use their cognitive skills more efficiently than most people
In cultures where extremely adverse health or nutritional factors exist, the genetic contributions to intelligence will
be less pronounced (expressed less within the population).
Some psychologists believe that in order for an idea to be truly creative, it must
be useful to some area of life.
self-concept
begin to describe their personalities - both positive and negatives - become better at perspective taking - learn more by being around other children
distributive justice
beliefs about how to divide resources fairly. (262)
Mastery-oriented
believe that you have the ability to complete tasks
Mrs. Murata's class is holding a fundraiser to pay for a field trip. Vye thinks that Shii Ann should get a larger portion of the fundraising proceeds because her family has little money to help pay for the field trip themselves. Vye is in which stage of distributive justice reasoning?
benevolence
Gardner proposes that
bodily-kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, and interpersonal abilities are just as important to human functioning as linguistic and spatial abilities.
Adoption studies provide support for the influence of
both environmental and genetic factors on intelligence.
hippocampus
brain structure involved in forming new explicit memories for episodic and semantic information; helps encode new memories for events and information and the transfer of them from short-term to long-term
frontal lobes
brain structure involved in retrieving and organizing information that is associated with autobiographical and episodic memories
Hierarchical Structure of Self-esteem in middle childhood
by age 6 to 7, children have form at least four broad self-esteems- academic, social, and physical/athletic competence, and physical appearance. -Self-esteem takes on hierarchical structure, with perceived physical appearance correlating more strongly with overall self-esteem than any other factor. -Self-esteem declines during the first few years of elementary school as children evaluate themselves in various areas- Asha in kg -from fourth grade on, self-esteem rises for the majority of children, especially in terms of their peer relationships and athletic capabilities.
During childhood and adolescence, perceived ____ correlates more strongly with overall self-worth than any other self-esteem factor. a. physical/athletic competence b. academic competence c. physical appearance d. social competence
c. physical appearance
The results from the Carolina Abecedarian Project suggest that intensive interventions that provide cognitive stimulation and parental education
can prevent deterioration in intellectual skills that ordinarily occurs in economically deprived conditions.
secular trend
change in body size and rate of growth from one generation to the next. (287)
hormones
chemical messengers released mostly by endocrine system - They travel through blood stream and affect other tissues.
joint custody
child custody arrangement following divorce in which the court grants each parent equal say in important decisions about the child's upbringing, as a means of encouraging both to remain involved in their children's lives. (271)
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
childhood disorder involving inattentiveness, impulsivity, and excessive motor activity. (leads to academic failure and social problems) (235)
level 3
children can step outside a two person situation and imagine how the self and other are viewed from the POV of 3rd impartial party.
Early intervention (Head Start/preschool) and IQ
children enrolled in Head Start or other enriched preschool programs outscore children who qualify but do not enroll on tests of school readiness at age 5 and show a gain of about 10 IQ points during the year of Head Start experience compared to similar children without such experience. However, this IQ gain typically fades and then disappears within the first few years of elementary school. Research also suggests that the contributions made by teachers to children's beliefs about their ability to attain educational goals continue to be evident in adolescence, and these children are less likely to be placed in SPED, somewhat less likely to repeat a grade and somewhat more likely to graduate from HS
Cross-cultural differences in IQ and achievement tests
children in U.S. demonstrate substantially lower levels of performance in math and science than those in other industrialized nations (particularly Asian countries) - may be attributed to differences in cultural emphasis on importance of academic achievement, number of hours spent on homework, quality of math instruction in schools, time spent in direct group instruction on one topic (Asian teachers typically devoted an entire class period to a single type of problem and 74% of class time in group instruction, while U.S. teachers tend to shift topics during a single lesson and spend only about 49% of time in group instruction), emphasis on computational fluency, and beliefs about achievement.
The presence of several risk factors, such as poor maternal mental health, low maternal education, and high incidence of stressful events, is associated with low IQ for
children in both high- and low-income families.
rejected children
children who are actively disliked and get many negative votes on self-report measures of peer acceptance. (unhappy, alienated, poorly achieving children with low self-esteem) (265)
self-care children
children who look after themselves while their parents are at work. (274)
Eric Kandel
chose Aplysia to study the neuronal changes that occur when a new memory is formed for a simple classically conditioned response; as the structural and functional changes in the neurons strengthen the communication links in the memory circuit, the memory becomes established as a long-term memory
social preferences
classmates whom children like very much or very little. (265)
gender/sex differences in IQ and achievement tests
comparisons of overall IQ test scores for boys and girls do not reveal consistent differences ; however, more boys than girls test as gifted in mathematical reasoning (spatial abilities, spatial visualization, mental rotation, numerical reasoning) - biological influences have been suggested (boys show greater coherence in brain function in areas of brain devoted to spatial tasks, and girls in parts where language and social information are processed), as well as hormonal and environmental influences
Mesosystem
connections among immediate settings
Reliability refers to the ____ of a measuring device such as a test.
consistency
ethnic differences in IQ and achievement tests - African Americans
consistently score lower than Caucasian children: 1. may be as low as 12 IQ points lower, but may have declined since the 80s to less than a 10 point difference. 2. Falls within reaction range of scores that are possible with different environments. 3. May reflect poverty differences including low birth weight, poor nutrition, as well as health problems and inadequate educational stimulation. 4. Mixed-race adoptions studies support environmental influence. 5. Cultural differences in schools may increase effect.
Where does socialization take place?
contemporary ecology
Lanette is arguing with her professor that questions on her last test were not covered during lectures or in the textbook. Lanette is basically arguing that the test did NOT have
content validity
The degree to which the items on a test are representative of the domain it is supposed to cover is referred to as
content validity
Professor Ridley is known for giving fair exams that include only test items for which the student should have been prepared. Professor Ridley's exams can be said to be high in
content validity.
Your cousin finds balancing his checkbook easy and knows how to solve complex mathematical problems while working at a bank. This is an example of Sternberg's component of
context.
Wernicke's area
controls language reception - a brain area invloved in language comprehension and expression - usually in the left temporal lobe.
Jose is always coming up with new solutions to a problem. As his teacher, you believe that he is
creative.
Stanovich argues that IQ tests do not predict rational thinking because they do NOT measure
critical thinking and the ability to weigh evidence.
Which of the following explanations for racial differences in intelligence is BEST supported by research evidence?
cultural disadvantage
Between ages 2 and 6 years, the brain increases from ____ percent of its adult weight. a. 25 to 40 b. 40 to 55 c. 55 to 70 d. 70 to 90
d. 70 to 90
Which of the following is supported by research on childhood aggression? a. In early childhood, physical aggression gradually replaces verbal aggression. b. Aggressive outbursts decrease over the course of early childhood. c. Psychologically healthy children never behave aggressively. d. Girls rely more on relational aggression than boys do.
d. Girls rely more on relational aggression than boys do.
During middle childhood, attention develops by becoming more a. selective b. planful c. adaptable d. all of the above
d. all of the above
Research indicates that ____ can adversely influence test performance of individuals who are members of ethnic minority groups. a. test content b. stereotype threat c. communication styles d. all of the above
d. all of the above
A(n) ____ child rearing style involves high acceptance and involvement, adaptive control techniques, and appropriate autonomy granting. a. uninvolved b. permissive c. authoritarian d. authoritative
d. authoritative
Research shows that children who are fluent in two languages a. do better than others on tests of selective attention, analytical reasoning, concept formation, and cognitive flexibility b. are advanced in certain aspects of language awareness, such as detection of errors in grammar and meaning c. neither a nor b d. both a and b
d. both a and b
Billy's difficulty grasping the principle of conservation helps to explain his: a. inability to see more than one person's point of view at a time b. tendency to draw a picture of a dime three times its normal size c. inability to understand that a Chihuahua and a Great Dane are both dogs d. inability to understand that a short cup and taller, narrower glass hold the same amount
d. inability to understand that a short cup and taller, narrower glass hold the same amount
According to Erikson, a child who has a realistically positive self-concept, takes pride in doing things well, and has a sense of moral responsibility has developed a. autonomy b. basic trust c. identity d. industry
d. industry
Molly says, "Only girls can be nurses." Molly a. has not yet attained gender constancy b. has an androgynous gender identity c. is a gender aschematic child d. is a gender schematic child
d. is a gender schematic child
Vinny and Kaylee are both building towers from the same pile of blocks, but they don't talk to each other or direct each other's activities. They are engaged in ____ play. a. cooperative b. associative c. nonsocial d. parallel
d. parallel
In many cases, the cause of learning disabilities is a. environmental disadvantage b. physical disability c. emotional problems d. unknown
d. unknown
In general, the development of emotional regulation is characterized by all of these patterns of change EXCEPT: decreasing reliance on others for help in regulating emotions. increasing ability to select appropriate strategies. increasing use of cognitive strategies. decreasing control over physiological reactions.
decreasing control over physiological reactions.
moral self-relevance
degree to which morality is central to self-concept. (323)
gender typicality
degree to which the child feels he or she fits in with others of the same gender. (268)
felt pressure to conform to gender roles
degree to which the child feels parents and peers disapprove of his or her gender-related traits. (268)
gender contentedness
degree to which the child feels satisfied with his or her gender assignment. (268)
inattentional blindness explanation
deja vu can occur when you're not really paying attention to your surroundings
Walter Mischel's procedure in which preschool children were asked to wait for a considerable amount of time in order to receive a greater number of treats was designed to assess which characteristic? intelligence attentiveness delay of gratification social competence
delay of gratification
goodness-of-fit
depends on how well the parents are able to adjust to the child's needs and in turn influences the quality of attachment
Peer victimization
destructive form of peer interaction in which certain children become frequent targets of verbal and physical attacks of other forms of abuse.
generation gap
disparity between worldviews creates tension between parent and child. (304)
controversial
display blend of + and - social behaviors / they are hostile and disruptive but they also engage in positive prosocial acts / they often bully others and engage in calculated relational aggression to sustain their dominance
The first negative emotion that is apparent in infants is: anger. sadness. fear. distress.
distress.
Beliefs about how to divide up materials fairly are known as
distributive justice
Beliefs about how to divide up materials fairly are known as
distributive justice.
Conrad works at an advertising agency and is one of the first people called in when brainstorming for a new campaign. He has the unique ability to generate hundreds of creative suggestions that no one else seems to think of. This suggests that Conrad is skilled in
divergent thinking.
autonomy (low) and initiative
do not engage in the active exploration required to choose among alternatives.(314)
cognitive maps
draw bedroom and take me through it, can't do it completely mentally
The study that followed 450 boys from impoverished neighborhoods until middle age demonstrated that _____ strongly predicted later social functioning. both IQ score and emotional intelligence IQ score but not emotional intelligence emotional intelligence but not IQ score neither IQ score nor emotional intelligence
emotional intelligence but not IQ score
self-reference effect
encoding strategy (elaborative rehearsal technique) that when applying information to yourself improves your memory for information
In 1969, Arthur Jenson suggested that
ethnic differences in IQ are largely due to genetic factors.
Trevor's parents frequently argue and display a great deal of negative emotion in Trevor's presence. As a result, Trevor is likely to: believe that he angers other people. experience higher than average levels of negative emotions. think that high levels of negative emotions in relationships are normal and appropriate. experience all of these.
experience all of these.
Tony, a 10-year-old, asks his mother to buy him a toy at the store, but she refuses. Tony's first response will most likely be to
explain to his mother why her refusal is unfair.
Theory
explains facts; organizes them; generates testable predictions; and allows us some degree of control over what happens.
equilibration
explains how children shift from one stage of thought to the next--shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict or disequilibrium in trying to understand the world
stereotype threat
fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype which can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance. (243)
emotional sell-efficacy
feeling of being in control of their emotional experience; fosters a favorable self-image an optimistic outlook which helps to face emotional challenges. (261)
rough-and-tumble play
form of peer interaction involving friendly chasing and play-fighting that, in our evolutionary past, may have been important for the development of fighting skills. (230)
hypothetico-deductive reasoning
formal operational problem-solving strategy in which adolescents start with a hypothesis, or prediction, about variables that might possibly affect an outcome. (Then they deduce logical, testable inferences from the hypothesis, systematically isolating and combining variables to see which inferences are confirmed in the real world. (300)
divergent thinking
generation of multiple an unusual possibilities when faced with a task or problem. (associated with creativity) (250)
glial cells
glial cells-cells in the nervous system that support nourish and protect neurons.
moral development
good girl/good boy - effort is made to gain approval and friendly relations with others - fixed rules to maintain social order - during the school years, children construct a flexible appreciation of moral rules
organization
grouping socially isolated behaviors into higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive systems, the grouping or arranging of items and categories
George Sperling
he discovered the characteristics of visual sensory memory
If a test designed to measure extroversion correlates negatively with measures of social discomfort, correlates positively with measures of sociability, and has low correlations with measures of intelligence, you could conclude that the test has
high construct validity
People who score high on IQ tests are MORE likely than those who score low to have
high grades in school and high-status jobs.
Silas took the College Aptitude Test (CAT) when he was a junior in high school and attained a very high score on the test. When Silas was in college, he was suspended his first year; when he was readmitted, he ended up dropping out because he did poorly in all his classes. When Silas went for career counseling, he retook the CAT, and again he earned a very high score. Based on Silas's experience, you might conclude that the CAT has
high reliability but low validity.
Daniel makes As in his classes and is mastery oriented. Daniel will most likely attribute his success to
his ability
procedural memories
how to tie shoe, classical conditioning, memory for how to do something, action-based
Early Emotions? (article)
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/29/emotional-baby-moved-to-tears-by-moms-singing_n_4173272.html
Siegler: Emergence of Empathy
http://youtu.be/Q693OpZRd3I
Jimmy Kimmel: Children's Responses to Bad Gifts
http://youtu.be/q4a9CKgLprQ
Siegler: Display Rules & Disappointing Gifts
http://youtu.be/wd_iGOcpJcU
Piaget's pendulum problem
hypothetico-deductive reasoning (300)
visual sensory memory
iconic memory
educational self-fulfilling prophecy
idea that children may adopt teachers' positive or negative attitudes toward them and start to live up to these views. (249)
Levi has low self-esteem. In other words, there is a large discrepancy between his ________ and his ________.
ideal self; real self
The BEST evidence supporting the role of genetic factors in intelligence is provided by studies that compare
identical and fraternal twins
The first intelligence test was designed by Binet and Simon to
identify children who were unable to learn in a traditional classroom setting.
bicultural identity
identity constructed by adolescents who explore and adopt values from both their subculture and the dominant culture. (318)
identity moratorium
identity status of individuals who are exploring, but are not yet committed to, self-chosen values and goals. (316)
identity achievement
identity status of individuals who have explored and committed themselves to self-chosen values and goals. (316)
aphasia
impairment of language - usually cause by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or to Wernicke's area.
Optimal testing situations, such as familiarizing the child with the environment and materials, giving them encouragement on specific tasks, and using material rewards, have been found to
improve performance of economically deprived children more than middle-class children.
factors that speed up the flynn effect
improved education, health, technological innovations, more time devoted to cognitively demanding leisure activities, a generally more stimulating world, and greater test-taking motivation may have contributed to the better reasoning ability of each successive generation
identity vs. role confusion
in Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of adolescence, which is resolved positively when adolescents attain an identity after a period of exploration and inner soul-searching. (314)
industry versus inferiority
in Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of middle childhood which is resolved positively when experiences lead children to develop a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks. (257)
induction,
in which an adult helps the child notice others' feelings by pointing out the effects of the child's misbehaviour on others, noting especially their dis-tress and making clear that the child caused it.
gender intensification
increased gender stereotyping of attitudes and behavior, that occurs in early adolescence. (324)
chunking
increasing the amount of information that can be held in short-term memory by grouping related items together into a single unit, or chunk; involves the retrieval of meaningful information from long-term memory
school age
industry vs. inferiority
Seven-year-old Hannah has developed a strong sense of inadequacy and has little confidence in her ability to do things well. Hannah is displaying
inferiority
decision-making responsibility
information overload science medicine education economics communications media transportation security privacy and ecology responsibility of consequences
The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children was the first test to focus largely on
information-processing skills.
temperament
innate characteristics that determine an individual's sensitivity to various experiences and responsiveness to social interaction
When children evaluate the morality of a person's actions, they are considering . . . ?
intentions and context of the action
socialization occurs by way of....
interactions with significant others communication emotionally significant situations experiences with social groups
neural networks
interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning.
The results of recent research suggest that the incidence of ____ among profoundly gifted children (those with an IQ above 180) is about twice as high as in other children.
interpersonal and emotional problems
Sensitive Period
is a time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences.
At the beginning of the semester, all the students enrolled in Tommy's fitness class are required to take a test designed to assess their current fitness level. The test assesses each student's fat-to-muscle ratio, asks a number of questions about lifestyle and personal habits, and also measures aerobic function and stress response. In this case, it appears that the preliminary fitness test
is likely to have high construct validity
Chrono-system
is not a specific context. Instead, it refers to the dynamic, ever- changing nature of the person's environment.
Coleman is currently 30 years old. When he was 15 years old, he took an intelligence test and was told that his IQ score was 110. If Coleman retakes the intelligence test now, he would likely discover that his current IQ score
is similar to his previous score of 110.
Inclusion of children with special needs into mainstream classes
is still debated as to its effectiveness.
social comparisons
judgments of one's own abilities, behavior, appearance, and other characteristics in relation to those of others. (258)
A school-aged girl is more likely to have higher self-esteem than a school-aged boy in which area?
language arts
Factors affecting the childs theory of mind
language, cognitive abilities, make- believe play, and social experiences all contribute.
crowd
large, loosely organized group consisting of several cliques with similar normative characteristics. (328)
Mastery-oriented children tend to have __________ goals, while helpless children tend to have ___________ goals
learning; performance
Recent research by Plomin (2006) suggests the strongest links found between genes and intelligence were associated with
less than/nto 1% of the variation in intelligence.
A valid test is one that
measures what it is supposed to measure
Which of the following is NOT one of the eight types of intelligence described by Gardner?
mechanical
episodic memories
memories of very personal events, know about when they happened, something you were personally there participating in
If you are told that Philip displays the mental ability typical of an 11-year-old child, you know Philip's ____ is 11.
mental age
Binet and Simon believed that
mental functions involving judgment, comprehension, and reasoning are what should be measured on intelligence tests.
cognitive development
mental processes of knowing which include imagining, perceiving, reasoning, and problem solving
Mental Software
mental programs that are the basis for performing particular tasks.
cognitive maps
mental representations of familiar large-scale spaces, such as neighborhood or school. (232)
Ashley is 30 years old. She has an IQ score of 60 and has developed academic skills equivalent to a sixth-grade education. She is self-supporting, even though she still lives with her parents. According to the system traditionally used to categorize various levels of mental retardation, Ashley would MOST likely be classified as having
mild mental retardation.
Which of the following is NOT likely to overwhelm or minimize the genetic contribution to the intellectual functioning of an individual or group?
mixed ancestry.
Jamie is a 23-year-old female who only completed the third grade. She is employed in a sheltered workshop and has a difficult time with mild stress. Jamie is MOST likely
moderately mentally retarded.
Correlations between IQ scores and school grades can BEST be characterized as
moderately positive
long-tern consequences of divorce
most children show improved adjustment by 2 years after this / children continue to score slightly lower than children with married parents / can lead to adolescent sexuality and development of intimate ties / positive adjustment comes out of effective parenting
mean girls
most school-age children believe a group is wrong to exclude a peer, yet they do exclude / usually using relationally aggressive tactics / socially anxious children, when ousted, often become increasingly peer-avoidant and thus more isolated
suppression
motivated forgetting that occurs consciously
repression
motivated forgetting that occurs unconsciously
pride
motivates children to take on further challenges. (261)
musical intelligence
musicians, singers, composers, and conductors possess this
college degrees
nearly 42 percent of American young people earn college degrees. (58 percent of Canadians) (310)
nerves
neural "cables" containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.
self-evaluation
new dimensions added with adolescence; close friendship, romantic appeal, job competence. (315)
Studies like the Berkeley Guidance Study and the Fels Longitudinal Study, which assessed infant IQ with measures of sensorimotor skills, found that infant IQ scores are
not related to childhood IQ scores.
Creativity tests are ____ in predicting the creative achievements of people in the real world because they tend to measure creativity as a ____.
not very accurate; general trait
coregulation
occurs when a supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while letting children take charge of moment by moment decisions / develops out of warm, cooperative relationships, and child based on give and take / parents must guide and monitor a distance and effectively communicate their expectations
practical intelligence (originally called contextual intelligence)
often called "street smarts"; includes skill in applying information to the real world or solving practical problems
Parents of disorganized / disoriented attached children
often had memories of grim parent-child interactions. Their own childhoods were often characterized by abuse or neglect themselves. No wonder they hadn't learned how to interact in positive, loving ways with their own children!
differences of IQ within families
on average, first-born children have the highest IQ scores, with average scores declining down the birth order; these differences are found consistently when IQ scores are averaged over many children or adults, but the pattern weakens or is not obvious at all when you look at individual families
clustering
organizing items into related groups during recall from long-term memory
A child's performance on an intelligence test is described in terms of her position relative to the performance of
other children her age.
talent
outstanding performances in a specific field. (251)
William James,
over a century ago, was the first one to talk about two distinct aspects of the self. One is the "I," or what he called the existential self. This is the part that initiates action, that organizes what you do, that interprets the world. This is the active doer, the part that controls your actions and thoughts. The other is the "me," or what he termed the reflective observer. This is the one that stands back and treats the self as an object of knowledge and evaluation. This is the one that looks at the self and decides what sort of person he or she is, what sort of attributes one has, and interprets one's self-worth.
hierarchical style of communication
parent directs each child to carry out an aspect of the task, and children work independently, like that of classrooms. (243)
linguistic intelligence
people who are good writers or speakers, learn languages easily, or possess a lot of knowledge about language
25 percent
percentage of american children living in single parent households. (270)
attunements
permanent gain over the level of performance a child would show without enrichment
Walter has taken a test that attempts to assess his interests and attitudes. Walter has MOST likely taken
personality test
The capacity to imagine what other people are thinking and feeling is called
perspective taking
The correlation between social class and intelligence is
positive
Sternberg's research on intelligence suggests all of the following EXCEPT that
practical intelligence is superior to both analytical and creative intelligence.
self-discipline, effort and delay of gratification
predicts school performance as well as and sometimes better than IQ. (243)
periods of development
prenatal infancy and toddler early childhood middle childhood adolescence emerging adulthood early adulthood middle adulthood late adulthood
In order to promote creativity in your children, you encourage them to engage in
pretend play.
bodily kinesthetic intelligence
professional athletes possess high levels
Elizabeth Loftus
psychologist at the forefront of research on memory distortions
George miller
psychologist who believed that the capacity of short-term memory is limited to about seven items, or bits of information, at one time
Richard F. Thompson
psychologist who classically conditioned rabbits to perform eye blinks. He confirmed Pavlov's speculations better than Lashley and confirmed that very simple memories may be localized in a specific area
An infant's ability to recognize a totally novel stimulus and direct his attention to it is called
recovery.
Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences
refers to separate, diverse types of intelligence in humans
Memory Strategies:
rehearsal, elaboration, repetition, and organizaton
According to your textbook, "intelligence" is BEST thought of as a
reification
If a test yields nearly identical scores when it is retaken after a two-month interval, the test is said to be
reliable
The psychometrician at your school is administering a new IQ test and finds that students' scores on the test vary considerably across testing sessions. The new IQ test is not
reliable.
prospective memory
remembering to do something in the future
high stakes testing
research confirms that high stakes testing requirements have contributed to the high dropout rate among US inner-city minority youths
naturalistic intelligence
scientists are high in this type; involving the ability to recognize patterns in nature
An individual's percentile score is the percentage of people who
score at or below his or her score
Larry tells you that his 10-year-old cousin recently completed an intelligence test that translated raw scores into deviation IQ scores. Larry knows that his cousin's score was 120, but he is not sure what this means. You should tell him that his cousin
scored above the mean for 10-year-olds.
emotional development
self-conscious emotions are pride and guilt become clearly governed - children experience pride in a new accomplishment - guilt prompts them to make amends and to strive for self-improvement
Thomas and Chess's nine dimensions,
served as the first influential model of temperament,
According to theories that employ the concept of reaction range, the upper limits of an individual's intellectual potential are
set by heredity.
theory of mind
set of ideas about mental activities.
Megan has an IQ score of 30 and is able to perform simple tasks in highly structured environments. According to the system traditionally used to categorize various levels of mental retardation, Megan would MOST likely be classified as having
severe mental retardation
Zoe, who is 3 years old, has broken a dish and feels as if she wants to hide. She is primarily experiencing: anger. embarrassment. guilt. shame.
shame.
The Featured Study concerning racial stereotypes and test performance found that when students believed a test analyzed problem-solving strategies, the performance of African-American students was
similar to the performance of Caucasian students.
One explanation for the link between intelligence and mortality is
smart people take better care of themselves.
The person who is sensitive to others' needs and accepts others for who they are is evidencing the ____ type of intelligence.
social
Many researchers suggest that since many of the larger minority groups in the United States (such as African American, Native American, Hispanic) are over-represented in the lower class, ethnic differences in IQ should be considered to be the result of
social class differences in experience.
Allie is told a story where a puppy digs a large hole in a neighbor's front yard. The neighbor comes out and yells at the puppy, chasing it away. One neighborhood child sees the entire incident, while another child only sees the puppy being chased away. If Allie understands that one child might view the neighbor as mean, while the other one may not, she is in which of Selman's perspective-taking stages?
social-informational
over time
socialization occurs ____ ______.
a method of group psychotherapy in which each patient assumes and dramatizes a variety of roles, usually focusing on problems and conflicts arising in group situations.
sociodrama
15 to 20 months
somewhere around______________ that they seem to recognize that the image they see is themselves they also begin to talk about themselves as separate entities from other people.
Roland is an architect who can design dream homes based on vague ideas and images that his clients bring to him. According to Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, Roland is likely to score high in which of the following?
spatial intelligence
long-term memory
stage of memory that represents the long-term storage of information
As a psychometrician, you are concerned that you administer the test using the same procedures each time. You are concerned with
standardization.
The results of the Featured Study on racial stereotypes and test performance suggest that
stereotype vulnerability appears to impair minority group members' test performance.
Chen, Stevenson, and colleagues have found that Asian parents are more likely than European American parents to attribute children's academic performance to
studying hard.
popular-antisocial children
subgroup of popular children largely made up of "tough" boys who are athletically skilled, aggressive, and poor students. (cause trouble by defying adult authority and enhance own statue by ignoring, excluding and spreading rumors about other children) (265)
popular-prosocial children
subgroup of popular children who combine academic and social competence. ( communicate with peers in sensitive, friendly and cooperative ways) (265)
sensory cortex
the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.`
medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
middle childhood
the beginning of formal school marks the transition - the school children discoverer their own and other's unique capacities, learn the value of division of labor, and develop a sense of moral commitment and responsibility
performance
the behavior shown by a person under real-life rather than ideal circumstances. Even when researchers are interested in competence, this is all they can ever measure.
Stanford-Binet
the best-known U.S. intelligence test; written by Lewis Terman and his associates at Stanford University and based on the first tests by Binet and Simon; consists of six sets of tests, one set for children of each of six consecutive ages; child begins with set below his or her actual age and takes increasingly older tests until they become too difficult
endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
nervous system
the body's speedy electrochemical communication network consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system
central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord.
memory trace
the brain changes associated with a particular stored memory; an "engram";
dendrite
the bushy branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
Two children are mentally retarded, yet one is higher in adaptive skills. One would conclude that
the child lacking adaptive skills is more likely to be labeled mentally retarded
Familial retardation includes intellectual deficits that derive from
the conditions of early infancy or childhood
validity
the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.
I have stressed the fact that there are three separate components to moral development:
the emotional or affective component; the cognitive component that stresses children's reasoning; and the behavioral component, or what the child actually does in various situations.
memory consolidation
the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring long-term memory codes
forgetting
the inability to recall information that was previously available
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
memory
the mental processes that enable us to retain and use information over time
brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain - beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is repsonsible for automatic survival functions.
encoding specificity principle
the principle that when the conditions of information retrieval are similar to the conditions of information encoding, retrieval is more likely to be successful; the more closely retrieval cues match the original learning conditions, the more likely it is that retrieval will occur
socialization
the process by which individuals acquire knowledge, skills and character traits; this facilitates their contribution as effective members in society
retrieval
the process of recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it
storage
the process of retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time
Synaptic Transmission
the process of transferring information at a synapse - see neurotransmitter.
Erickson's theory: industry vs. inferiority
the psychological conflict during middle childhood - resolved positively when children develop a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks
flashbulb memory
the recall of very specific images or details surrounding a vivid, rare, or significant personal event; details may or may not be accurate
lost-in-the-mall technique
the research strategy of using information from family members to help create or induce false memories of childhood experiences
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
Robert Sternberg
theory that regards intelligence as a product of both inner and outer forces. (240)
Newborns' emotions are MOST frequently regulated in which way? by intentionally averting their gaze in distressing situations through self-soothing through other people's attempts to soothe and distract the baby by initiating the "fight or flight" response
through other people's attempts to soothe and distract the baby
Many argue that it is inappropriate to use heritability estimates of intelligence obtained in one population
to infer the heritability of intelligence in another population
spatial intelligence
used in the production and appreciation of works of art such as paintings and sculpture
Most intelligence tests over the years have tended to stress
verbal and reasoning skills related to academics.
Mary Main
was the first to study what the behavior of older children was in a similar but more developmentally appropriate situation for older children than the Strange Situation. She was interested in 6 year olds. These children had all been classified into the different categories of attachment as infants, using the Strange Situation, and she wanted to know what happened when they were older. She brought the children and their parents into her lab. The family was photographed and each member was interviewed separately, and then the parents reunited with the child one by one and the reunion behaviors assessed.
Securely attached 6-year-olds
were pleased with the family photo but casual about it. They greeted parents affectionately, initiated interaction and responded eagerly to parental remarks. Their conversation was fluid with few pauses and little hesitation or groping for words. The conversation was balanced between parents and children, with both contributing equally to the conversation, and the focus of talk shifted easily and often between talking about objects, about activities, and relationships.
Parents of resistantly attached children
were still preoccupied with their own dependence on their own parents; they were so involved psychologically with their own unmet needs in relation to their parents that their relationship with their own children was less important.
Avoidantly attached 6-year-olds
when given the family photo, didn't look at it, or turned away or dropped it. When reunited with parents they ignored them, responded minimally when addressed, and often moved a distance away from them. Discourse was quite dysfluent, with lots of hesitations and groping for words, a very limited selection of topics, and in general showed that conversation was not natural or easy with each other.
4 general categories of peer acceptance: controversial children
who get a large # of + and - votes (are both liked and disliked)
4 general categories of peer acceptance: rejected children
who get many negative votes (are disliked)
4 general categories of peer acceptance: popular children
who get many positive votes (are well liked)
Critics argue that heritability explanations for ethnic differences in IQ have a variety of flaws and weakness; these weaknesses do NOT include
within-groups comparisons are more likely to be the result of environmental influences.
According to Leon Kamin, ____ differences in IQ scores are most likely to be heritable, and ____ differences are most likely to be the result of environmental factors.
within-groups; between-groups
Collaborative style of communication
work together in a coordinated, fluid way, each focused on the same aspect of the problem
Patterns in Developing Self-Regulation
www.eatmedaily.com/2009/09/psychological-experiments-in-self-control-the-marshmallow-test//
elaboration
- Generating our own relationships between items that don't automatically go together - Can be done with images or words - Most difficult strategy for kids to use - Around age of 11, kids can use mneumonic techniques, make the phrase something funny or memorable
Emotions in adolescence
- Increase in the frequency and intensity of negative emotions. - Decrease in positive emotions. - Modest increase in the occurrence of negative emotion. - Negative emotions often in their relations with parents.
Dynamic-Systems Theory of emotions
- Novel forms of functioning arise through the spontaneous coordination of components interacting repeatedly. - Specific cognitive and physiological events tend to coordinate more often with each repeated occasion, forming stronger connections and coherent "emotional interpretations". - That way, emotions develop differently for each individual depending their unique emotion-related biology and cognitive capacities and experiences.
If you ask 4-year-old Kate to describe herself, she would probably describe herself in terms of a. personality traits b. mental abilities c. interests and goals d. observable characteristics
d. observable characteristics
Which of the following is NOT one of the eight types of intelligence proposed by Gardner?
emotional
emotional and social/psychosocial development
emotions, personality, and social interactions and expectations
logical/mathematical intelligence
enables individuals to learn math and generate logical solutions to various kinds of problems
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
from age 2 to adulthood, it assesses five intellectual factors:general knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, and basic information processing
organization
in Piaget's theory, the internal rearrangement and linking together of schemes so that they form a strongly interconnected cognitive system. (in information processing, the memory strategy of grouping together related items) (234)
Concrete Operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
crystalized intelligence
in cattell's theory, a form of intelligence involving skills that depend on accumulated knowledge and experience, good judgement, and mastery of social customs.
creative intelligence (originally called experiential intelligence)
includes insightfulness and the ability to see new relationships among events or experiences
The fact that adopted children resemble their biological parents in intelligence, even though they were not reared by those parents, suggests that intellectual development is
influenced more by genetics than by environmental factors.
Mercer's use of an adaptive functioning measure in conjunction with standardized intelligence tests was important because it showed that
many minority children who had been classified as mentally retarded could function in their environment and perform adaptive skills, such as household tasks and holding a job
elaboration
memory strategy of creating a relation between two or more items that are not members of the same category. (236)
The two very broad categories of psychological tests are
mental ability and personality tests
The correlation between IQ scores and vocational success is BEST described as
moderately positive
Initiative Vs. Guilt
3-6 years Through make- believe play, children experiment with the kind of person they can become. Initiative— a sense of ambition and responsibility— develops when parents support their child's new sense of purpose. The danger is that parents will demand too much self- control, which leads to overcontrol, meaning too much guilt.
Approximately ____ of IQ scores fall between 85 and 115.
68%
Carolina Abecedarian Project
7 principles: Encourage exploration, mentor basic skills, celebrate advances, rehearse & generalize new skills, protect children from inappropriate disapproval, teasing & punishment, rich & responsive communication, guide & limit behavior Worked because: started early & was long term, promoted positive, specialized interaction, improved mother's health & happiness and by so doing, mother & child interactions
Concrete Operational
7-11 years years Children's reasoning becomes logical and better organized. School- age children understand that a certain amount of lemonade or play dough remains the same even after its appearance changes. They also organize objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses. However, thinking falls short of adult intelligence. It is not yet abstract.
The youngest age at which IQ scores are fairly good predictors of adult IQ is
7-9 year olds
Dimensions Theory of emotions
A circle with four poles: Valence: pleasant vs. unpleasant Activation: passive vs. active. Circle of emotions examples: - Relaxed: mildly active + pleasant emotion - Andry: intensely active + unpleasant emotion
Synaptic Cleft
A microscopic gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron. Signals have to jump this gap to permit neurons to communicate. The presynaptic neuron sends the message and the postsynaptic neuron receives it.
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential
A negative voltage shift that decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials. Depends upon which receptor sites are activated.
Resting Potential
A neuron's stable, negative charge of about 70 millivolts when the cell is inactive. Negative ion: Chloride.
Broca's Area
A part of the left frontal lobe that plays an important role in the production of speech.
Action Potential
A very brief shift in a neuron's electrical charge that travels along an axon. The charge changes from negative (chloride ions) to positive (sodium and potassium ions). This happens when the neuron is stimulated and the channels in its cell membrane open, briefly allowing the positive ions to rush in.
3-7
ADHA is estimated to occur in _-_% of school aged children
Selective Attention
Ability to attend to one thing while ignoring irrelevant stimuli - Card Sorting Study illustrates how it develops
Cognitive growth during young adolescence leads to considerable improvement in vocabulary of what type of words?
Abstract words
High IQ as a predictor
Academic achievement, occupational attainment, & psychological adjustment.
Utilization deficiency
Children execute strategies consistently, but their performance does not improve
Jelani was recently considered for enrollment in the gifted program at his school. The report says that Jelani is an extremely creative and talented child. Based on the standard practices in most school districts, Jelani would
not meet the criterion for giftedness unless he also scored above 130 on an IQ test.
Differences in physical size can be attributed to . . . ?
nutrition, heredity, stress, environment, SES levels
Spinal Cord
Connects the brain to the rest of the body through the peripheral nervous system.
Deferred Imitation
Copying an activity hours or days after it has occurred, suggests that children have an idea of what the action of imitation actually represents - _________ _____________ over several days time of a complex action is criteria to pass out of sensorimotor stage (generally happens around 18 months) - Once these skills are acquired, there is a transition in thought and child moves to next stage
Which of the following statements regarding the creative process is MOST accurate?
Creativity generally emerges out of normal problem-solving efforts.
What kind of validity do tests such as the SAT and ACT particularly strive for?
Criterion-related validity
Temporal Lobe
Devoted to auditory processing - primary auditory cortex.
Co-rumination
Extensively discussing and self-disclosing emotional problems with another person
theory of multiple intelligences
Gardner's theory, which identifies eight independent intelligences on the basis of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to engage in a wide reange of culturally valued activities. (241)
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Gardner's theory, which proposes at least 8 independent intelligences, defined in terms of distinct sets of processing operations applied in culturally valued activities: linguistic (language), logicomathematical, musical, spatial (knowing directions), bodily - kinaesthetic (athleticism), naturalist (environmentalist), interpersonal (social skills), & intrapersonal (look at own emotions).
Females
Gender differences (male/female): Judging other's emotions
Males
Gender differences (male/female): Mental Rotation Taks
Females
Gender differences (male/female): Verbal Abilities
Academic, Social, Physical/Athletic Competence, and Physical Appearance
General Self Esteem breaks down to
Which of the following statements does NOT reflect the current understanding of the influence of genetic and environmental factors on intelligence?
Genetic and environmental factors combine to set a person's reaction range
neglected children
children who are seldom chosen, either positively or negatively, on self-report measures of peer acceptance. (265)
controversial children
children who get a large number of positive and negative votes on self-report measures of peer acceptance.
Popular children
children who get many positive votes on self-report measures of peer acceptance. (265)
social-constructivist classroom
classroom based on Vygotsky's theory, in which children participate in a wide range of challenging activities with teachers and peers, with whom they jointly construct understandings. (as children acquire knowledge and strategies from working together, they become competent contributing members of their classroom community and advance in cognitive and social development) (249)
constructivist classroom
classroom that is based on the educational philosophy that students construct their own knowledge. (Piaget's theory) consists of richly equipped learning centers, small groups and individuals solving problems they choose for themselves, and a teacher who guides and supports in response to children's needs. (248)
autobiographical memory
closely related to episodic memory-- this memory refers to the events of your life, your personal life history and plays a key role in your sense of self
One reason for changes in WHEN and HOW MUCH temperament is expressed at different ages.
It is likely that the changes occur do to genes turning ON and OFF throughout development, so there are differences in the degree to which behaviours are affected by genes.
Following Spearman's work from the factor analytic perspective, recent researchers have
confirmed the existence of a general cognitive ability because different cognitive tests are in fact correlated with one another.
Fear emergence
a. 4 months: wary of unfamiliar objects and events. b. 6-8 months: fear of strangers (recognition that unfamiliar people do not provide the same comfort as those who are familiar. c. Around 7 months: other fears emerge, such as fear of novel toys, loud noises, sudden movements, others. d. Fear tends to increase until about 12 to 16 months. e. Fear is adaptive: expression of fear brings people in to help the infant - can't defend themselves. f. Mother's way of dealing with the infant's expression of fear shapes individual differences in how fear will be dealt with by the infant.
self regulation
ability to control one's impulses, behavior, and/or emotions until an appropriate time, place, or object is available for expression
semantic function
ability to use a symbol or object or a word to stand for something
personal fable
adolescent's belief that they are special and unique, leads them to conclude that others cannot possibly understand their thoughts and feelings and may promote a sense of invulnerability to danger. (304)
mood congruence
an encoding specificity phenomenon in which a given mood tends to evoke memories that are consistent with that mood
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
an inability to pay attention, often with hyperactivity and poor impulse control, ADHD is often diagnosed in children younger than 7. It interferes with home life, schoolwork, or other functions
Cumulative deficit
any difference between groups in IQ or achievement test scores that becomes larger over time.
Dr. Carmody has designed a new critical thinking assessment test. He administers the test to a group of students in October. In April, he tests the same students and finds that the overall correlation between the two sets of scores is +0.91. Based on this information, Dr. Carmody could conclude that his new test
appears to have high test-retest reliability.
phonics approach
approach to beginning reading instruction that emphasizes simplified reading materials and training in the basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds. (238)
Interested in learning how to fly airplanes, Roger has just taken a test designed to predict how well he is likely to do in a pilot training program. Roger has taken a(n)
aptitude test
Standardized tests designed to predict how well you will do in college are MOST appropriately called
aptitude tests
Socioeconomic status and ethnicity
are often associated with one another, and the effects of each of these can be very difficult to disentangle in research.
neglected
are usually well-adjusted / most are just as socially skilled as average children, despite low rates of interaction / they do not report feeling lonely or unhappy, and they can cooperate well with peers and have stable friendships
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortext that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions - rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning - remembering - thinking - speaking
Learned helplessness
attribute their failures to ability but, when they succeed, conclude that external factors, such as luck, are responsible. They believe that ability is fixed and cannot be changed by trying hard.
Common, everyday explanations for the causes of behavior are known as
attributions
Jamal recently completed an intelligence test and was told that his IQ score was 135. Based on the standard practices in most school districts, Jamal would
be considered gifted and would be eligible for gifted programs.
puberty
biological changes at adolescence that lead to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity.(hormonal changes begin at 8-9 years old) (283)
Adoption studies comparing the intelligence of adopted children to their ____ provides support for the role of genetic factors in intelligence.
biological parents
contemporary ecology
biotechnology IT globalism/nationalism decision-makinf responsibility information intermediaries
Oral Stage
birth-1 year The new ego directs the baby's sucking activities toward breast or bottle. If oral needs are not met appropriately, the individual may develop such habits as thumb sucking, fingernail biting, and pencil chewing in childhood and overeating and smoking later in life.
cerebellum
brain structure involved in classically conditioning simple reflexes; involved in procedural memories and other motor skill memories
peer relations
peer contact contributes to perspective taking and understanding of self and others - this enhances peer interaction
The capacity to imagine what other people are thinking and feeling is called
perspective taking.
inferiority
pessimism of children who have little confidence in their ability to do things well. (257)
The term that refers to the measurement of a test that examines whether the measurement is consistent is
reliability
Parents of securely attached children
remembered loving and supportive parents and a warm family climate. They placed high value on attachment relationships and saw them as having long term effects on personality.
family influences: siblings
rivalry between the two increases in middle childhood / parents often compare siblings traits and accomplishments / to reduce this, siblings often strive to be different from one another
divorce mediation
series of meetings between divorcing adults and a trained professional who tries to help them settle disputes. (aimed at reducing family during the period surrounding divorce) (271)
Twin and adoption studies and IQ
show strong hereditary influences on IQ scores, but both heredity and environment contribute to IQ score differences; identical twins are more like one another in IQ scores than fraternal twins. Longitudinal studies suggest that heredity explains, at best, 80% of individual variation in IQ scores
Disoriented/disorganized attached 6-year-olds
showed the least coherence. Children were not particularly interested in the photo and in terms of their behavior, they could show a range of behaviors, including fear, hostility, disorientation, and so on. They also could show odd behaviors that were inappropriate, and their conversation with their parents showed the most dysfluency of all the children.
The Featured Study concerning racial stereotypes and test performance found that when students believed a test measured general verbal ability, the performance of African-American students was
significantly lower than the performance of Caucasian students.
According to Joseph Renzulli, eminent adults who make enduring contributions to their fields tend to show high levels of all of the following, EXCEPT
social skills
equity and benevolence
special consideration should be given to those at a disadvantage. (8 years) (263)
emotion-centered coping
strategy for managing emotion in which the individual controls distress internally and privately when little can be done about an outcome. (261)
divorce
stressful for children / the more parents argue and fail to provide children with warmth, involvement, and consistent guidance, the poorer the child's adjustment
Which of the following traits has NOT been linked to creativity?
submissive
Resilience
the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development
Arthur Jensen (1969) suggested that
the differences between African Americans and European Americans in IQ can mainly be attributed to genetic factors.
In The Bell Curve, Herrnstein and Murray imply all of the following EXCEPT
the heritability of intelligence is very low.
environmental cumulative deficit hypothesis
the negative effects of underprivileged rearing conditions increase the longer children remain in those conditions. as a result, early cognitive deficits lead to more deficits, which become harder to overcome
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
parietal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear - receives sensory input for touch and body position.
frontal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behid the forehead - involved in speaking and muscle movements and in amking plans and judgments.
Some African American children who succeed in school choose strategies to hide or camouflage their actual efforts to achieve academic success because
they get negative feedback from peers who may express negative attitudes toward education.
Parents of avoidantly attached children
typically had distant and uncaring, hostile parents themselves. Although they may have described their parents in idealized ways on the surface, when they provided specific details of how their parents had interacted with them, these showed their own parents to be very rejecting. These parents also claimed to remember very little about their childhood. They also saw their relationship with their own parents as having little effect on them, and thus they didn't see that the quality of their own relationship with their children would have any effect. In fact, they thought that relationships in general were unimportant.
Resistantly attached 6-year-olds
when given the family photo, often held it and looked at it for a long time, often with sadness. When reunited with parents they attempted to control them through either punitive behavior or else anxious, overly solicitous "care giving" behavior. Their conversation also was not fluid, with lots of hesitations and a limited range of topics.
massed practice
when you cram information
distributed practice
when you learn information over several sessions, which gives you time to mentally process and incorporate the new information
Temperament and Social Adjustment
• Adjustment depends on: → Child's temperament → Goodness of fit between child's temperament & demands/expectations of environment • The child's temperament and the parents' socialization efforts seem to affect each other over time
Temperament and Social Adjustment: Longitudinal Study Conducted in New Zealand
• Children who were negative, impulsive, and unregulated: → Had more problems as young adults with adjustment (e.g. including unemployment and conflict with roommates) • Behavioral inhibition in infancy associated with problems like anxiety, depression, and social withdrawal at older ages.
Temperament
• Constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations, as well as relative stability over time • Constitutionally based = biologically based → Genetically inherited characteristics → Prenatal environment (nutrition, teratogens, maternal cortisol) → Complications from prematurity • These early differences are labeled as dimensions of temperament
gender intensification (cause of )
Biological, social and cognitive factors.(324)
Basic Trust Vs. Mistrust
Birth-1 year From warm, responsive care, infants gain a sense of trust, or confidence, that the world is good. Mistrust occurs when infants have to wait too long for comfort or are handled harshly.
slow
Body growth is a ___, regular pattern
Internalizing Disorders
Characterized by over-controlled behavior
*Dyslexia
- having trouble reading
Animal, natural development, blood/injury, situational, & other
5 types of phobias
If your score falls at the 75th percentile on a standardized test, which of the following is an accurate interpretation?
75% of the people who took the test scored at or below your score.
Researchers who believe that IQ is largely genetic (such as Arthur Jensen) argue that the heritability of IQ is close to
80%
Industry Vs. Inferiority
6-11 years At school, children develop the capacity to work and cooperate with others. Inferiority develops when negative experiences at home, at school, or with peers lead to feelings of incompetence.
Close, good relationships with a teacher can act as buffer to minimize negative effects of a shy temperament. True or False?
True.
Rehearsal, Organization, & Elaboration
What are the 3 types of strategies that children develop in the concrete operational stage?
Cattell & Horn
Who described intelligence as crystallized and fluid?
Intelligence - Primary mental abilities
Word fluency Verbal meaning Reasoning Spatial visualization Numbering Rote memory Perceptual speed
déjá vu
a brief but intense feeling of remembering a scene or an event that is actually being experienced for the first time; French for "already seen"
Standardization
The practice of giving a newly constructed test to a large, representative sample of individuals and using the results as the standard for interpreting individual scores.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Made up the nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands. It controls automatic, involuntary, and visceral functions that people don't normally think about.
formal operational thought (adolescence)
also involves verbal reasoning about abstract concepts. (301)
family influences: parent child relationships
amount of time spent with parents declines dramatically / child rearing becomes easier for those parents who were authoritative during the early yrs
IQ scores do NOT routinely increase as we get older because
an IQ score is indicative of our relative standing in our particular age group.
At the end of her calculus course, Mary takes a test to determine how well she has mastered the material. Her calculus test is primarily
an achievement test
If you wanted to gauge a person's mastery and knowledge in a specific area, such as mathematics, you would need to administer
an achievement test.
Madisen has just completed a two-year internship with a law firm. She takes a test that is designed to assess her current knowledge of general legal principles. In this case, the test that Madisen takes would be classified as
an achievement test.
Self-Esteem
The aspect of self- concept that involves judgments about one's own worth and the feelings associated with those judgments.
Which of the following statements regarding differences in IQ is NOT supported by research findings?
The average difference in IQ between minority groups and Caucasians is largely a function of genetic factors.
Split-Brain Surgery
The bundle of fibers that connects the cerebral hemispheres (corpus callosum) is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures. Only performed in severe cases, it gives some understanding as to what the job of each hemisphere is.
Which of the following is NOT one of the items Galton measured in order to assess intelligence?
brain size
ethnic identity
an enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of ethnic group membership and attitudes and feelings associated with that membership. (318)
semantic memory
category of long-term memory that includes memories of general knowledge of facts, names, and concepts; represents your personal encyclopedia of accumulated data and trivia stored in your long-term memory
episodic memory
category of long-term memory that includes memories of particular events;
dynamic assessment
children are informed about the purpose of an intelligence test and given a chance to practice with each kind of problem-solving task on the test prior to actually being tested; significantly increases proportion of minority children who attain above-average scores.
emotional understanding
children at this age are likely to explain emotion by referring to internal states - appreciating mixed emotions helps children realize that people's expressions may not reflect their true feelings
level 2
children can step in another's shoes and view their own thoughts, feelings and behaviour from the other's person's perspective. They also recognize that others can do the same.
peer group
collectives that generate unique values and standards for behavior and a social structure of leaders and followers. (264)
popular-procsocial
combine academic and social competence
attributions
common, everyday explanations for the causes of behavior. (259)
Intelligence tests tend to measure ____ thinking; tests of creativity tend to measure ____ thinking.
convergent; divergent
Criterion-related validity is
estimated by correlating subjects' scores on a test with their scores on an independent criterion (another measure) of the trait assessed by the test.
identity development progress
evaluate progress by exploration and commitment. (Erikson)(316)
Emotion
expresses your readiness to establish, main-tain, or change your relation to the environment on a matter of importance to you
Children with incremental and entity views of intelligence differ in their performance on tasks after
failure.
John Bowlby
father of attachment theory
If environment affects intelligence, you should predict that the IQs of children who stay in understaffed orphanages will
gradually decline as they grow older.
Basic Emotions
happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, disgust— are universal in humans and other primates, have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival, and can be directly inferred from facial expressions.
identity foreclosure
identity status of individuals who lack exploration and, instead, are committed to ready-made values and goals that authority figures have chosen for them. (316)
Parents of avoidantly attached
infants are hostile and rejecting, often angry and resentful at how the baby interferes with their other interests and activities and often react to the baby in an angry, irritable way. Or, they can be very insensitive, providing inappropriately overstimulating care when the baby can't handle or doesn't want it. Or, they can simply be fundamentally unavailable or uninterested in their child. They don't pick them up and hold them, and they avoid close body contact.
Parents of resistantly attached
infants are most characterized by inconsistency. Sometimes they respond to their children and sometimes they ignore them, So, they may be unresponsive when the infant is trying to get their attention but then when the infant begins to explore they may become intrusive. In short, the infant can't predict how the caretaker will respond, so he or she becomes both clingy and simultaneously hostile and can show a rather frenzied, exaggerated proximity seeking behavior.
adolescent mood
less stable than adults, related to situational changes. (289)
Stereotype threat
may interfere with the performance of minority youth in intelligence tests.
Attributions:
mastery oriented and learned helplessness and effect on self esteem
People with high IQs tend to have ________ in their brains than people with low IQs.
more gray matter and more white matter
Myopia
nearsightedness; lack of foresight
intrapersonal intelligence
people who are good at identifying their own strengths and choosing goals accordingly have high levels
As an extension of the Carolina Abecedarian Project, Ramey and colleagues randomly assigned some children and their families to a later-starting intervention program in early elementary school. They found that the children who participated only in these later-starting programs
performed better than children who participated in only the preschool intervention program
development is divided into three broad domains
physical/biological cognitive emotional and social/psychosocial
One of the differences that Stevenson, Chen, and colleagues found between American and Japanese families that could account for differences in academic performance between children in these countries is that compared to Japanese mothers, American mothers
placed greater emphasis on the role of effort in academic performance.
offenses reduced (adolescents)
positive family relationships, authoritative parenting, high quality teaching, and healthy communities. (332)
coruminate
repeatedly mull over problems and negative feelings. (327)
sensory memory
the stage of memory that registers information from the environment and holds it for a very brief period of time
serial position effect
the tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle
interpersonal intelligence
those in the "helping professions" - counselors, social workers, ministers, and such - have high levels
identity
understanding of how you are
psychometric approach
using IQ tests to define and explain individual group differences in intelligence
A test that measures what it claims to measure is considered
valid.
4 general categories of peer acceptance: neglected children
who are seldom mentioned, either + or -
Attributions
Common, everyday explanations for the causes of behaviour.
adolescence
11 years --> 18 years
The Slow To Warm Up Child
( 15 percent of the sample) is inactive; shows mild, low- key reactions to environmental stimuli; is negative in mood; and adjusts slowly to new experiences.
implicit memory
"memory without awareness"; information or knowledge that affects behavior or task performance but cannot be consciously recollected; also called "non-declarative memory"
endorphins
"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory, especially for episodic information; backward-acting amnesia
When does happiness emerge?
By 2 to 3 months of age.
non-relevant
Children eliminate ______-_________ information
Inhibition
The ability to control internal and external distracting stimuli
Goodness of Fit
- The degree to which an individual's temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment. - Influences how children ultimately adjust.
Formation of a reciprocal relationship
( 18 months- 2 years and on). By the end of the second year, rapid growth in representation and language per-mits toddlers to understand some of the factors that influence the parent's coming and going and to predict her return. As a result, separation protest declines. Instead, children negotiate with the caregiver, using requests and persuasion to alter her goals. For example, one 2- year- old asked her parents to read a story before leaving her with a babysitter. The extra time with her parents, along with a better understanding of where they were going (" to have dinner with Uncle Charlie") and when they would be back (" right after you go to sleep"), helped this child withstand her parents' absence.
The Easy Child
( 40 percent of the sample) quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences.
Rouge Test
- Put a little make up on their nose, put them in front of the mirror. - If they try to take the makeup off, you assume they have Self-Awareness. - If they don't react, they have not reached that point yet. - Kicks-in at 17-24 months.
Frontal lobe activation measures through EEG and relationship to temperament
- Right frontal lobe activation: correlates with negative emotion, inhibition, anxiety and avoidance. - Left frontal lobe activation: correlates with positive emotion, relaxed and engaged mood, curiosity towards novelty.
Two behaviours common in depression and anxiety among adolescents.
- Social withdrawal. - Bodily complaints.
Volume conservation task
- Start with two identical glasses filled with same amount of water - Transfer water from one glass into a different shape glass. - Ask child if same amount of water in both glasses - Ask child to explain logic - Ask child to make a prediction what would happen if you dumped water back into other glass * will pass this task around age 6, after they pass this task they are ready to transition to next stage - Hard because they must take into account more than one variable at a time (height and width) - Often consider height, but not width when making their judgement - Centration
Which of the following has NOT been found to increase helpless responses and lower achievement motivation in children?
Examiner's emphasis on learning goals.
____ tests measure specific types of mental abilities, and ____ tests measure a person's mastery and knowledge of various subjects.
Aptitude; achievement
Ethological Theory of Attachment
Based on the evolutionary notions of Darwin. Not only does our body morphology evolve, but also some critical aspects of our behaviour, those that have critical importance for survival. Because behaviour evolves, it is a target of natural selection, just like physical characteristics.Ethologists claim that there is a HEREDITARY COMPONENT TO SOME BEHAVIOURS, but that these genetically coded behaviours are MODIFIED AND SHAPED BY THE ENVIRONMENT too, i.e., heredity is crucially important but does not write the full story. INTERACTION BETWEEN HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT IS CRUCIAL.
Time tables for when emotions emerge can be unreliable. Why?
Because they are based on observable expressions, not on the presence of the emotion itself. It is possible that infants experience certain emotions before they can express them physically. it is impossible to know.
How does attention change during middle childhood?
Become more selective and more planful
Describe what the principle perspective taking entails.
Being able to imagine what other people are thinking and feeling
Numbers for below average IQ scores
Below 85 (70-80 is borderline between low average and mild mental retardation; below 70 signifies some degree of mental retardation
Emergence of Embarrassment
Between 15 and 24 months of age. Children will show embarrassment when made the center of attention: blush, hide, lower the eyes.
At what age do the emotions displayed by infants tend to become more consistent with the situation they are experiencing?
Between 5 and 12 months of age.
At what age do infants demonstrate fear of strangers?
Between 6 and 8 months. Lasts until about 2 years of age. Varies with presence of a parent, infant's temperament, how the stranger approaches, etc.
Lack of Reversibility
Inability to mentally reverse or undo an action, will master around age 6 or 7
Neuron
Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information. They are the basic links that permit communication within the nervous system. The vast majority of them communicate with other neurons.
level 4
Individuals understand that the 3rd party perspective taking can be influenced by one or more systems of larger societal.
Which of the following statements is correct?
Infant intelligence tests are useful in identifying neuromotor abnormalities.
Recall memory
Information we call up from memory without any cue or prompt - Present with a stimulus; later our ability to reproduce stimulus without aid is tested - More difficult to do (remember something that isn't there) - Involves the use of memory strategies like rehearsal
Myelin Sheath
Insulating material that encases some axons. It speeds up the transmission of signals that move along the axons (large myelin sheath = faster transmission).
Which of the following statements concerning psychological tests is FALSE?
Intelligence tests measure a person's mastery and knowledge of various subjects
____ tests measure general mental ability, and ____ tests measure various aspects of people including motives, interests, values, and attitudes.
Intelligence; personality
Social referencing
Looking at mom or dad (primary caregiver) to see their emotional expression and using it to evaluate the situation. If mom expresses fear, they understand it is a dangerous situation.
postconventional level
Kohlberg's highest level o fmoral development, in which individuals define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. (321)
trust
Once a friendship forms, _____ becomes its defining feature.
Dominant Gene
One that is expressed when paired genes are different (i.e. brown eyes).
Recessive Gene
One that is masked when paired genes are different (i.e. blue eyes).
Talent
Outstanding performance in a specific field.
Talent
Outstanding performance in one or a few related fields.
Blended
Parent, stepparent, and children form a new family structure called a _____ family
Emotion coaching
Parents not only discuss emotions with their children but also help them learn ways of coping with their emotions and expressing them appropriately. - Children of parents who use emotion coaching: more socially competent with peers, more empathic, less likely to exhibit problem behaviours or depression than children who did not receive it.
Development of Intelligence - Society
Poverty puts people at risk for lower IQ, especially in the US. Here, this is partly correlated with race and single parents Resilience: available learning materials, parental responsiveness, safety, child optimism, sociability, intelligence Risks - low status employment, low SES, large family, low parental education, mother mental health, negative parent-child interactions, works like multiple risk model
IQ
Predicts occupational, academic, & economic success (though these things are also influenced by things other than IQ, incl. self discipline [impulse control], practical intelligence, emotional intelligence, and group work skills.)
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve
Reveals two distinct patterns in the relationship between forgetting and the passage of time-- much of what we forget is lost relatively soon after we originally learned it; shows that the amount of forgetting eventually levels off--the information that is not quickly forgotten seems to be remarkably stable in memory over long periods of time.
Name the cognitive advantages for children who become fluent in two languages.
Selective attentions, analytical reasoning, and advanced reading ability; advanced cognitive abilities; denser gray matter
Level 0: Undifferentiated perspective taking 3- 6 Level 1: Social- informational perspective taking 4- 9 Level 2: Self- reflective perspective taking 7- 12 Level 3: Third- party perspective taking 10- 15 Level 4: Societal perspective taking 14- adult
Selman's Stages of Perspective Taking _________Children recognize that self and other can have different thoughts and feelings, but they frequently confuse the two. __________Children understand that different perspectives may result because people have access to different information.Children can " step into another person's shoes" and view their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviour from the other person's perspective. They also recognize that others can do the same. ___________Children can step outside a two- person situation and imagine how the self and other are viewed from the point of view of a third, impartial party. ____________ Individuals understand that third- party perspective taking can be influenced by one or more systems of larger societal values.
Parathyroids
Small glands in the neck that regulate calcium and phosphorous balance.
Synaptic Vesicles
Small sacs in which most neurotransmitters are stored. They release the neurotransmitters when they fuse with the membrane of the presynaptic cell and its contents spill into the synaptic cleft.
Social smiles
Smiles directed at others. 7 months: smile primarily to familiar people but not to strangers. 18 months: smiling more to people than to inanimate objects. 2nd year: purposefully uses smiles to interact with people, fully understands their social value. 18 months to 2 years: try to make other people smile by being funny or saying funny things.
Social Smiles
Smiles that are directed at people. They first emerge as easily as 6-7 weeks of age
triarchic theory of successful intelligence
Sternberg's theory, which states that intelligent behavior involves balancing analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence to achieve success in life, according to one's personal goals and the requirements of one's cultural community. (240)
Transitive Inference Task
Stick A is bigger than stick C, stick B is bigger than stick A - Concrete operations can't do this in head
Lower-Limit Control Behavior
Stimulates the child's behavior, which is below parental standards.
Some aspects of temperament tend to be more stable than others, over time. True or False?
True. For example, positive emotionality, fear and distress/anger may be more stable than activity levels over the course of infancy.
Children better understand social referencing if they see both vocal and facial expression cues, but vocal cues alone are better than facial cues alone. True or False?
True.Together is better. Vocal alone is better than facial alone.
Reliability and Validity
You can have reliability without validity but you cannot have validity without reliability.
Intimacy Vs. Isolation
Young Adulthood Young people work on establishing intimate ties to others. Because of earlier disappointments, some individuals cannot form close relationships and remain isolated.
Pattern of self-regulation development: use of cognitive strategies to control negative emotions
Younger children: primarily use behavioural strategies such as distracting themselves with play. Older children: add on cognitive strategies and problem solving to adjust to emotionally difficult situations. This ability helps children to avoid acting in ways that may be counterproductive. Example: when an older child is teased by peers, they may downplay the situation and avoid reacting to it in a way that would provoke more teasing.
Boys
____ hold more stereotyipc views. (boys/girls)
Stanford Binet
_____ _______ test asses math and verbal skills
Peer groups
_______ _____ organize on the basis of proximity & similiarity in sex, ethnicity academic achievement, popularity, and agression
Self-Conscious Emotions
•Feelings that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others' reactions to us • Emerge during the second year of life → At about 15 to 24 months of age, some children start to show embarrassment when they are made the center of attention → By 3 years of age, children's pride is increasingly tied to their level of performance → The situations likely to induce self-conscious emotions in children vary somewhat across cultures
You have just learned that your child is gifted and that his IQ score is over
130
males
After two years ____ did fine coping with the divorce.
Hermann Ebbinghaus
German psychologist who began the scientific study of forgettting; used nonsense syllables (ROH, LEZ, WIB), tested his memory and used himself as a subject
Mild Mental Retardation
IQs fall between 55 and 70, and they also show problems in adaptive behavior, or skills of everyday living.
Control deficiency
Know a strategy and sometimes use it at right time, but do not use it consistently at the right time. Sometimes revert to less effective strategies or don't use a strategy at all
Of the following family characteristics, which is the LEAST likely to be associated with higher IQ scores in the children?
Parents who are strict and demanding
Emotion-Centered Coping
Used if problem-centered coping does not work. Internal private control of distress; situation is seen as unchangeable
virtual twins
children of the same age who are adopted and raised as twins; their IQ scores are more strongly correlated than those of biological siblings raised in separate homes
Research indicates that the most effective treatments for childhood obesity focus on a. designing a daily exercise regimen for the child b. severely restricting the number of calories eaten c. changing behaviors of the whole family toward food d. discovering the unconscious forces that make the child eat
c. changing behaviors of the whole family toward food
"I hurted myself when I falled down" is an example of a. the past imperfect b. literal translation c. overregularization d. egocentric speech
c. overregularization
Preschoolers' gender stereotypes tend to be a. nonexistent until at least kindergarten b. stronger for girls than for boys c. rigid and inflexible d. all of the above
c. rigid and inflexible
growth spurt
rapid gain in height and weight during adolescence. (284)
Which parenting style is the most effective in encouraging healthy all-around growth?
Authoritative
Effective strategy use
Children use strategies constistently, and performance improves
Expressive
Females generally have ________ traits
adulthood
gernerativiy vs. self-absorption
Difficult babies (Chess & Thomas)
- 10% of the group - A lot of negative emotion - High intensity negative reactions to novel stimuli and events - Withdrawal from novel situations - Slow to adapt to new routines and experiences - Irregular in daily routines and bodily functions
Formal Operational Stage
- 12 onward - Develop abstract thinking, see "gray areas" more flexible - Think about future, think in terms of morality - Think like young scientists (Hold all else constant and change one thing at a time to test hypothesis) - More sophisticated metacognitive skills (Understand what you know and don't know) - Become more analytical (Look at both sides, entire spectrum)
Slow-to-warm-up babies (Chess & Thomas)
- 15% of the group - Somewhat negative, but not as difficult - Low levels of activity - Withdrawal from novelty but with enough time they warm up to novelty - Somewhat difficult at first but easier over time, as they had repeated contact with new objects, people and situations
Preoperational Stage
- 2-6 years 1. Egocentrism - 3 mountain problem 2. Categorization 3. Conservation tasks - Lack of reversibility - Focus on End States
Easy babies (Chess & Thomas)
- 40% of the group - Positive mood, not freaked out about novelty, easy-going. - Adjusted readily to new situations, quickly established daily routines. - Generally cheerful and easy to calm down.
Emotional Intelligence
• A set of abilities that contribute to competent social functioning: → Being able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustration → Control impulses and delay gratification → Identify and understand one's own and others' feelings → Regulate one's moods → Regulate the expression of emotion in social interactions → Empathize with others' emotions
Research
• Highly elaborate systems for coding and classifying the emotional meaning of infants' facial expressions (for objectivity) • Identify emotions first in dozens of facial cues; analyze the combination in which these cues are present → Often hard to determine exactly which emotions infants are experiencing → Particularly difficult to differentiate among various negative emotions that young infants express
Cultural Bias in Testing
(1) Tests not biased; represent success in the common culture. (2) Cultural factors can hurt test performance - communication styles, culture specific content, stereotypes.
triarchic theory of successful intelligences
(Sternberg's theory) made up of three broad interacting intelligences 1. analytical intelligence-or information-proccessing skills 2. creative intelligence- the capacity to solve novel problems 3. practical intelligence- application of intellectual skills in everyday situations. Intelligent behavior involves balancing all three intelligences to achieve success in life, according to ones personal goals and the requirements of ones cultural community
Compared to uninhibited children, behaviorally inhibited children tend to: be less social at later ages. be high in fearful distress. have lower cortisol levels. All of the answers are correct.
All of the answers are correct.
Group Tests
Allow testing of large groups, require little training to administer, useful for instructional planning, identify students who need individual testing.
Criticism of Piaget's Theory
At times over or underestimated ages that skills appeared - Baillargeon Study - Perspective taking (If simplify task, or use familiar scenes and simpler questions, can do much earlier * Theory of Mind task - Overestimate age of formal operations - 1/3 of all Seniors can pass these tests - Some cultures never reach this level - Not necessarily a universal development, will pass tests consistent with area of interest - Uses of Stages criticized - If a sudden transition then kids should perform well on all tasks at once (e.g. conservation tasks: number, weight, volume) - Argue that development more continuous
Catigorical self
Classification of the self according to prominent ways in which people differ, such as age, sex, physical characteristics, and goodness and badness. Develops between 18 and 30 months.
Norepinephrine (NE)
Contributes to modulation of mood and arousal; cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at NE synapses.
Medulla
Controls largely unconscious but vital functions, including circulating blood, breathing, maintaining muscle tone, and regulating reflexes (sneezing coughing, etc...)
Problem-centered coping
Coping method in which you identify the difficulty & decide what to do about it; situation is seen as changeable
Which of the principles is the most significant in the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct?
Do no harm children (ABOVE ALL we shall nor . . . degrading,)
Which of the following is NOT one of the issues on which scientists have focused in formulating theories of intelligence?
Does intelligence decrease throughout the lifespan as brain cells age?
Shame
Does not seem to be related to concern about others
_____ is an example of a cognitive emotional regulation strategy. Repetitive rubbing of a special object such as a blanket Averting one's attention to a nondistressing object Downplaying the importance of the situation Having a temper tantrum
Downplaying the importance of the situation
Nonshared Environmental Influences
Environmental influences that make siblings living in the same home different from one another (birth order, spacing, sibling relationships, parental favourites, assigned roles, etc).
Psychosocial Theory
Erikson emphasized that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribu-tion to development, acquiring attitudes and skills at each stage that make the individual an active, contributing member of society.
interactions; social environment
Erikson explained the personality development of individuals as the outcome of their ______ in their ______.
self-concept
Erikson identified 8 critical stages of psychosocial development in a person's life that affects _________.
Name the four sections of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct.
Ethical responsibilities to: Children, Family, Colleagues, Community/Society
Children in different cultures demonstrate separation anxiety at different ages. True or False?
False. Pattern of separation anxiety is consistent across different cultures: emerges at about 8 months, increases until 13 to 15 months, and then declines.
Being able to inhibit inappropriate behaviour, delay gratification, and use cognitive methods of controlling their emotion and behaviour doesn't help children to be well-adjusted or liked by their peers and by adults. True or False?
False. Social competence is a great advantage for being integrated into the group.
Parents of negative, unregulated children eventually become more patient and less unitive with their children; which helps the child to become less negative and unregulated. True or False?
False. The opposite is true. Parents tend to become less patient, which negatively impacts the child.
Children exposed to suboptimal parenting do better if they have unregulated or reactive temperaments. True or False?
False. These children tend to do worse if exposed to suboptimal parenting.
Davis is a gifted violinist who has been playing the violin since he was two. He started writing his own music when he was four. However, Davis has a difficult time expressing himself with words, and he struggles with all his written assignments for his classes at school. The theory of intelligence that could BEST be used to account for Davis's different levels of performance in these areas is
Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.
Which of the following is NOT one of the parts of Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence?
General mental ability subtheory
Social Problem Solving
Generating and applying strategies that prevent or resolve disagreements, resulting in outcomes that are both acceptable to others and beneficial to the self....noticing and interpreting social cues, clarifying social goals, generating and evaluating strategies, and enact-ing responses— improve over early and middle childhood and predict socially competent behaviour. Training in social problem solving leads to gains in social information processing and adjustment.
Evocative
Gentotype - Environment Child influences others' behavior e.g. a child's parents will read him or her more books if he or she expresses interest in books.
What is the first outward sign of puberty?
Growth sprit (around 8-9 years old for girls)
Difference between Shame and Guilt.
Guilt: associated with empathy for others and feelings of remorse and regret about one's behaviour, as well a desire to undo the consequences of that behaviour. Shame: focus on oneself, feel like hiding as if you have been exposed, no related concern about others or the consequences of the behaviour for others.
Which one of the following has NOT been associated with Head Start participation?
Higher IQ scores in adolescence
Describe gender intensification.
In early to mid adolescence: Girls act and dress in a more stereotypically female fashion; identify with gender rules; boys act and dress more masculine
declines
In middle childhood, the amount of time children spend with parents _______ dramatically
To some degree, Emotional Intelligence is a better predictor than IQ of how well people will do in life, especially in their social lives
In research by Walter Mischel, preschoolers' abilities to delay gratification were found to predict their social, emotional, and academic competence many years later
Basic Emotions
Innate Universal Primary Facial expressions seen in babies
Society pt. 2
Interventions w/ poor children outside home temporarily boost skills. Graduation rate improves, percentage on welfare decreases, as do arrests and being held back in school
Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB)
Involves sending a weak electric current into a brain structure to stimulate (activate) it. The electric stimulation in close enough to the actual signal in the brain to activate and to see what effect is has on behavior.
Synaptic Pruning
Involves the gradual elimination of less active synapses and it is a key process in the formation of neural networks.
Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
It brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuro-science, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing child's cognitive processing and behaviour patterns.
Lesser and colleagues' (1965) research on patterns of cognitive skills found that the greatest differences between lower- and middle-class children were for
Jews
Monica recently completed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and was told that her deviation IQ score fell at the 50th percentile. This means that
Monica's IQ score would be 100.
What form of mental illness frequently has been found to be associated with outstanding creativity?
Mood disorders
Changes in moral views
Moral understanding advances greatly in middle childhood. -Flexible moral rules -Clarify link between moral imperative and social convention. By age 7 to 8, children no longer believe that all truth-telling is good and all lying bad. They now are able to consider intentions of the individual and whether the person intended to do good or cause harm and also what context that person's actions took place in.
refined
More _____ me-self: social comparisions and emphasize competencies (positive & negative)
Which statement about the origins of cultural differences in emotion is true? Parental socialization plays a large part in the development of emotions that are appropriate to the culture. Differences in emotional experience appear to be nearly entirely due to environmental, as opposed to genetic, differences. Differences in emotional expression appear to be largely due to genetic differences. Emotional experiences have equivalent meanings across cultures.
Parental socialization plays a large part in the development of emotions that are appropriate to the culture.
Categorization
Part of Preoperational Stage - Ex: 5 yellow flowers and 4 blue ones on table. Ask "are there more yellow flowers or more flowers?" - Child will say initially that there are more yellow flowers than flowers - assume you want them to make a comparison - they are tied to physically the most salient feature in front of them - Later they will understand that all are flowers and that color doesn't matter
4 Self-regulation Deficiencies:
Production deficiency: in early childhood, Control deficiency: young elementary school children, Utilization deficiency: slightly later, Effective strategy use: mid-elementary school
Egocentrism
Project own thoughts onto others - Give you credit for things you don't actually know - Tend to be captured by immediate concrete perception, what they can physically see - Child learns so much from adults around them, that it's hard to imagine that you don't have the information, they are not able to consider another person's perspective.
Pros and cons of laboratory visits (measuring temperament)
Pros: - Less likely to be biased. Cons: - Children's behaviour usually is observed in only a limited set of circumstances.
Pros and cons of parental report through questionnaires (measuring temperament)
Pros: - Parents have an extensive knowledge of their children's behaviour in many different situations. Cons: - They can misrepresent their child, by reporting them to be "better" than they actually are. - To try to minimize the problem, questionnaires have Lie Scales to see how much they are misrepresenting the child. - They also may have a different personal perception of temperament dimensions, such as irritability (what is irritability? for some one behaviour may "say" irritable, but not for others; it's not objective).
Rumination and Co-rumination
Rumination: insistent focus on one's own emotions and on their causes and consequences, without engaging in efforts to improve one's situation. Co-rumination: extensively discussing and self-disclosing emotional problems with another person.
Adrenal Gland
Secrete hormones throughout the body, preparing it to cope with an emergency.
Which of the following does NOT describe what Terman's gifted children were like as adults?
Several individuals were recognized for genius-level contributions in their fields.
Shawna's IQ score was calculated using the formula developed by Lewis Terman, and the result was 92. This indicates that
Shawna's chronological age is greater than her mental age.
Which of the following statements is an example of reification?
She gets good grades in school because she is intelligent.
Carrie, age 8, has high social self-esteem. Of the following statements, which most likely applies to Carrie?
She tends to be well-liked by her classmates.
Level 1 Perspective taking
Simpler task: two-sided card, picture of house on one side, picture of sun on the other, test memory by removing card and ask if kid remembers both sides. Hold back up and ask what you are looking at, "What am I looking at?" - Can usually pass by age 3
Bayley Scales of Infant Development
The best-known and most widely used test of infant "intelligence"; has been constructed rather like IQ tests for older children in that it includes sets of items of increasing difficulty.
Parasympathetic Division
The branch of the ANS that generally conserves bodily resources. It allows the body to save and store energy. It slows heart rate, reduces blood pressure, and promotes digestion.
hypothalamus
The bridge between endocrine and nervous systems and contains body's thermostat and centers for regulating hunger and thirst
Testis
This is one of the two male reproductive glands that produce spermatozoa and secrete androgens
Level 2 Perspective taking
Transfer knowledge base to someone else, theory of mind tasks, false belief tasks (much more difficult)
Differences between being an "easy" or a "difficult" child have been have ben associated with children's later social competence and maladjustment. True or False?
True.
Ekman believed emotions were displayed through facial expressions, and couldn't be hidden. True or False?
True.
Sociodramatic
________ play is when a group of children get together and act some sort of a scene together Children who engage in more_________ play come earlier to a theory of mind than children who engage in less _________ play. We also know that children who engage in more ___________ play have advanced language skills, relative to other children, and they also have advanced social skills relative to other children.
Understanding Causes & Dynamics of Emotions
• Children quickly develop understanding of kinds of situations that typically evoke different emotions in others in preschool & school years • Happy before sad: → 2-year-olds can identify happy situations in stories → Children are not accurate in identifying sad situations until age 4 • By age 4-6, children's explanations for why peers experience negative emotions in real-life situations in their school are somewhat similar to those of adults
Children's Understanding of Real & False Emotions
• Display rules: A social group's informal rules about appropriate expression of emotion → Prosocial: protecting others' feelings or their own e.g., pretend to like someone's cooking → Self-protective: suppression (masking) of emotion e.g., when being teased or when they lose a contest • Things that help this development: → Cognitive development → Social factors (gender) → Parents' beliefs and behaviors
Children's regulation abilities are shaped by their expectations of their environments
• Most delay of gratification research focuses on child‐internal factors or on adult expectations • This study manipulated the RELIABILITY of the environment → Experimenter keeps (reliable) or breaks (unreliable) her promise to bring the big set of cool art supplies • Big effects on children's ability to delay gratification‐ just from a few minutes in the lab!
Parental Socialization of Children's Emotional Responding
• Socialization: the processes by which individuals, through experience with others, develop the skills and ways of thinking and feeling, as well as standards and values, that allow them to adapt to their group and live with other people. → Parents' expression of emotion with their children and other people → Parents' reactions to their children's expression of emotion (empathy) → Discussions parents have with their children about emotion and emotion regulation (Emotion coaching) → Discussing emotions at age 2-3 predicts emotion understanding at age 6
