Child Development Exam 2

Why is It So Hard to Create Culture-Fair Tests?

Tests reflect dominant culture Time limit: value time Language: different meanings Pictures: experience with drawings & photos Context! Sternberg - no culture-fair tests, only culture-reduced tests

Connecting Through Research

The Abecedarian Project Intervention program, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Craig Ramey & colleagues (Campbell & others, 2012; Ramey & Campbell, 1984; Ramey & Ramey, 1998; Ramey, Ramey, & Lanzi, 2006) Child-care program included game-like learning activities aimed at improving language, motor, social & cognitive skills The success of the program in improving IQ was evident by the time the children were 3 years old & long-lasting The results not unprecedented Review of the research on early interventions concluded: (Brooks-Gunn, 2003) High-quality center-based interventions associated with increases in children's intelligence & school achievement Early interventions most successful with children from low-families with low-income & children whose families have little education

primary circular reactions

The infant repeats them the same way each time Infant's own body is infant's center of attention

theory of mind

Theory of Mind - awareness of own mental processes & the mental processes of others; "thinker who is trying to explain, predict & understand people's thoughts, feelings & utterances" Theory of Mind and children who are bilingual Developmental Changes 18 months - 3 years of age Perceptions By 2 years of age Recognize another person will see what's in front of her eyes instead of what's in front of child's eyes Developmental Changes 18 months to 3 years of age Emotions Distinguish between positive & negative emotions Desires Others may have different desires Developmental Changes 3 to 5 years of age Understand mind can represent objects & events accurately or inaccurately Realize people can have false beliefs—beliefs that are not true—develops in a majority of children by the time they are 5 years old (Band-Aid box of pencils) Developmental Changes Individual Differences in reaching milestones Executive function also may be connected to theory of mind development

what is thinking?

Thinking - manipulating & transforming information in memory

ch 7

info P?

ch 8

intelligence

ch 9

language

**rote

lmnop

Revisiting the Nature vs. Nurture Issue

Consensus among psychologists - both heredity AND environment influence intelligence Disagreement about how strongly each influences intelligence

Evaluating Piaget's Theory

Contributions Considered a giant in field of developmental psychology Considered founder of present field of children's cognitive development Psychologists owe him for enduring concepts of: assimilation, accommodation, object permanence, egocentrism, conservation, and others Contributions Careful observations of children demonstrated inventive ways to discover how they act on and adapt to their world Children need to make their experiences fit their schemes & simultaneously adapt their schemes to experience Contributions Cognitive change likely to occur if context is structured to allow gradual movement to next higher level Concepts do not emerge suddenly, full-blown, but instead develop through series of partial accomplishments that lead to increasingly comprehensive understanding Criticisms Piaget's theory has not gone unchallenged Questions raised about estimates of children's competence at different developmental levels, stages, training of children to reason at higher levels, culture and education. Criticisms Estimates of Children's Competence Some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than Piaget thought Cognitive abilities also can emerge later than Piaget thought or not at all Recent theoretical revisions highlight more cognitive competencies of infants & young children and more cognitive shortcomings of adolescents & adults Criticisms Stages Some concrete operational concepts do not appear in synchrony Most contemporary developmentalists agree children's cognitive development is not as stage like as Piaget thought Criticisms Effects of Training Some children who are at one cognitive stage (such as preoperational) can be trained to reason at a higher cognitive stage (such as concrete operational) Criticisms Culture and Education Culture & education exert stronger influences on children's development The Neo-Piagetian Approach Argue that Piaget got some things right but that his theory needs considerable revision

Cognitive Resources: Capacity and Speed of Processing Information

Developmental changes in information processing are likely influenced by increases in both capacity & speed of processing

autism

Differences: social interaction & communication as well as repetitive behaviors or interests Often show indifference toward others, in many instances prefer to be alone & show more interest in objects than people It now is accepted that autism is linked to genetic and brain abnormalities Social interactions can be challenging Researchers have found that children with autism have difficulty in developing a theory of mind, especially in understanding others' beliefs and emotions Difficulty understanding others' beliefs & emotions not solely because of theory of mind differences but also due to other aspects of cognition: focus attention, eye gaze, face recognition, memory, language impairment, or some general intellectual impairment NOT homogeneous group, differing social & communication challenges Recent theories suggest challenges in executive functioning may be related to problems experienced by those with autism in performing theory of mind tasks Other theories pointed out that individuals who are typically developing process information by extracting the big picture, whereas those with autism process information in a very detailed, almost obsessive way It may be that in autism, a number of different but related deficits lead to social cognitive challenges

Stages of Development

Different way of understanding the world makes one stage more advanced than another - stages are qualitatively different Stages are age-related - distinct ways of thinking Piaget theory - four stages of cognitive development: We will focus on the first two Sensorimotor Preoperational

1. Orienting/Investigative Progress

Dominant in 1st year of life Direct attention to potentially important locations Where in the environment Recognize objects & their features (such as color and form) What in the environment 3-9 mos. infants can deploy their attention more flexibly & quickly New stimuli typically elicit an orienting response followed by sustained/focused attention State of readiness to detect & respond to small changes occurring at random times in the environment; maintain focus Sustained attention allows infants to learn about & remember characteristics of a stimulus as it becomes familiar Infants as young as 3 months can engage in 5-10 seconds of sustained attention 3 months-2nd year, length of sustained attention increases

first words

First words in English may include: name important people (dada), familiar animal (kitty), vehicle (car), toy (ball), food (milk), body part (eye), clothes (hat), and greeting term (bye) Holophrase- Express various intentions with single words: "cookie" - "That's a cookie" or "I want a cookie" "Dada!" "Dada?" "Dada" Receptive vocabulary (understand) - 13 months about 50 words Expressive/Spoken vocabulary (words the child uses)- 18 months about 50 words Spoken vocabulary increases rapidly once the first word is spoken vocab spurt 18-month-old speak about 50 words 24-month-old speak about 200 words Rapid increase in language is the vocabulary spurt Cross-linguistic differences in word learning Verbs in Asian languages Sometimes overextend - apply a word inappropriately for meaning ("dada" - all men) Sometimes underextend ("boy" - neighbor)

2. Constructing Memories

Memory is not like a tape recorder, camera or computer memory; we don't store and retrieve bits of data like a computer Children construct & reconstruct their memories Schema Theory People mold memories to fit information that already exists in their minds The process is guided by schemas Reconstruct the past rather than take an exact photo of it, & the mind can distort an event as it encodes and stores impressions Fuzzy Trace Theory When encode information, create 2 types of memory representations: Verbatim memory trace - precise details Fuzzy trace (gist) central idea of information Which one is used by preschoolers? Content Knowledge and Expertise Ability to remember new information about subject does depends on what we already know about it Only pertains to older children & adults - experts

What is Metacognition?

Metacognition Helps children to perform many cognitive tasks more effectively Is cognition about cognition, "knowing about knowing", thinking about thinking

Environmental Influences

Most experts today agree environment plays important role in intelligence Improving children's environments CAN raise their intelligence One argument for importance of environment in intelligence involves increasing scores on IQ tests around the world Worldwide increase in intelligence test scores, over short time frame - Flynn effect (James Flynn discovered it) Researchers increasingly are interested in early intervention (environment) of children who are at risk for impoverished intelligence (school, India, 5 IQ points each year delay) Early intervention - prevention - programs can educate parents to be more sensitive caregivers & better teachers, and provide support services (quality child-care) can enhance child's intellectual development Mainspring

What is the relationship between language and cognition?

Two basic and separate issues characterize connections between language and cognition 1st - Is cognition necessary for language? 2nd - Is language necessary for (or important to) cognition? Evidence of links between cognitive & language worlds of children (Oates & Grayson, 2004) Piaget's concept of object permanence has been the focus of some research that connects cognitive and language development lang and cognition Piaget emphasized children learn about the world first and then learn to label what they know Infants concept of object permanence before use words for disappearance, such as "all gone" (Gopnik & Meltzoff, 1997) Information-processing skills linked to growth in language (Colombo & others, 2009a, b)

two word utterances

18- 24 months two-word utterances Ex) "cup please" "daddy go" Convey meaning with just two words, rely heavily on gesture, tone, and context Telegraphic speech - "Mommy give milk"

III. Biological and Environmental Influences

. Biological Influences Remarkable similarities in how children acquire language all over the world, despite vast variation in language input 1. Evolution and the Brain's Role in Language Nervous system & vocal apparatus of humanity's predecessors changed over hundreds of thousands of years Homo sapiens went beyond grunting & shrieking of other animals to develop speech (about 100,00 years ago)

Group Comparisons

. Cross-Cultural Comparisons Cultures vary way describe intelligence Western cultures tend view intelligence in terms of reasoning & thinking skills Eastern cultures see intelligence way for members of a community to successfully engage in social roles

how language develops

. Early Childhood Toddlers move quickly from two-word utterances to creating three-, four-, and five-word combinations 2-3 years, begin the transition from simple sentences to complex sentences (Bloom, 1998). Increase grasp of the language rule systems

infancy

. Gestures Start about 8-12 months (show, wave, nod, point) Pointing - socially important - developmental sequence: Point without checking on adult gaze Point while looking back and forth between an object and the adult (Goldin-Meadow & Alibali, 2013). Point w/ whole hand, before point with index finger Experience expected? Lack of pointing is a significant indicator of potential problems in infant's communication system - Autism (Goldin-Meadow & Alibali, 2013). . Recognizing Language Sounds Long before they begin to learn words, infants can make distinctions among the sounds of the language (Kuhl, 1993, 2000, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2012). Kuhl's (2007, 2009, 2011, 2012) research has demonstrated first 6 months, infants are "citizens of the world": recognize when sounds change most of the time no matter what language 4. First Words Infants understand words before speak them 10-15 months, first spoken word Appearance of first words is a continuation of process (Berko & Gleason, 2009).

Biological Influences

1. Evolution and the Brain's Role in Language Language - enormous edge over other animals and increased the chances of human survival (Arbib, 2012) Evidence that particular regions of brain are predisposed to be used for language (Lee & others, 2012) 2. Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Linguist Noam Chomsky (1957) proposed humans are biologically prewired to learn language at certain time & in certain way - language acquisition device (LAD) Infants teach themselves-innate, universal grammar Enables child to detect certain features & rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics. LAD is a theoretical construct, NOT physical part of brain

Substage 1

1. Simple reflexes Birth - 1 month Coordinate sensation & action primarily through reflexes (sucking) Infant initiating action & actively structuring experiences

Theories of Multiple Intelligences

1. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Intelligence comes in 3 forms: Analytical Analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, & contrast Creative Create, design, invent, originate, & imagine Practical Use, apply, implement, & put into practice Who would do best in school? 1. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory Sternberg: Few tasks are purely analytic, creative, or practical Wisdom is linked to both practical & academic intelligence Howard Gardner's Eight Frames of Mind - Skills: Verbal Think in words & use language to express meaning (author, journalist, speaker) Mathematical Carry out mathematical operations (scientist, engineer, accountant) . Howard Gardner's Eight Frames of Mind: Spatial Think 3-dimensionally (architect, artist, sailor) Bodily-kinesthetic Manipulate objects & be physically adept (surgeon, craftsperson, dancer, athlete) . Howard Gardner Musical Sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, & tone (composer, musician, music therapist) Intrapersonal Understand oneself & effectively direct life (theologian, psychologist) 2. Howard Gardner Interpersonal Understand & effectively interact with others (teacher, mental health professional) Naturalist Observe patterns in nature & understand natural and human-made systems (farmer, botanist, ecologist, landscaper) 2. Howard Gardner Recently, Gardner considering adding a 9th type to list of multiple intelligences Existentialist(explore find meaning in life, questions about life, death, and existence) Each form of intelligence: Can be destroyed by a different pattern of brain damage Involves unique cognitive skills Howard Gardner Savant "island of genius"; "splinter skill" Time, New York subway system

substage 2

2. First habits & primary circular reactions 1 to 4 months Coordinate sensation & two types of schema: Habit -schema based on reflex that has become completely separated from stimulus (suck) Circular reaction -repetitive action Primary circular reaction -schema based on the attempt to reproduce event that initially occurred by chance

Ellen Winner (1996)

2. Marching to their own drummer Learn in a qualitatively different way than children who are typically developing; need minimal help, or scaffolding; resist explicit instruction; often make discoveries on their own and solve problems in unique ways 3. A passion to master - driven to understand domain in which they have high ability; display intense, obsessive interest and ability to focus; motivate themselves and do not need to be "pushed"

substage 3

3. Secondary circular reactions 4 to 8 months Infant becomes more object-oriented (rattle) Infant imitates some simple actions "Make interesting sights last" - repeat actions (coo to continue conversation)

childhood thinking

4 important types of thinking: 1. Executive function - goal setting (share a toy), delay gratification (marshmallow) Self-control Working memory Cognitive flexibility 4 important types of thinking: 2. Critical thinking - Involves thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating evidence School-age 4 important types of thinking: 3. Scientific thinking - aimed at identifying causal relationships (but not like adults) Why is the sky blue? Theory Theory 4 important types of thinking: 4. Solving problems - way to obtain goal Using rules to solve problems About 4 years, child acquire concept of perspectives, understand single thing can be described in different ways

6 key principles in vocal development

4)Children learn words best in contexts that are meaningful 5)Children learn words best when they access clear information about word meaning 6)Children learn words best when grammar and vocabulary are considered

substage 4

4. Coordination of secondary circular reactions 8 to 12 months Coordinate vision and touch (eye-hand) Actions become more outwardly directed. Coordination of schema & intentionality

substage 5

5. Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity 12 to 18 months Tertiary circular reactions -schema in which infant purposely explore new possibilities with objects, continually do new things, explore results Piaget - stage marks starting point for human curiosity & interest in novelty

Explicit Memory & Brain Development

6 to 12 months, maturation of the hippocampus & surrounding cerebral cortex, especially frontal lobes, makes the emergence of explicit memory possible Explicit memory continues to improve in 2nd year, brain structures further mature & connections increase

Recognizing Language Sounds

6-12 months, get better at perceiving changes in sounds from "own" language, one parents speak, and gradually lose ability to recognize differences not important in own language Learn individual words from nonstop stream of sounds in ordinary speech

substage 6

6. Internalization of schemes 18 to 24 months Begin to use symbols -internalized sensory image or word that represents an event Symbols allow infant to manipulate & transform the represented events in simple ways

how language develops- key milestones

A. Infancy Whatever language they learn, infants all over the world follow a similar path in language development 1. Babbling and Other Vocalizations Long before infants speak recognizable words, they produce a number of vocalizations (Parish-Morris, Golinkoff , & Hirsh-Pasek, 2013; Ramsdell & others, 2012). Functions of early vocalization: practice making sounds, communicate, and attract attention

II. Applying and Evaluating Piaget's Theory

A. Piaget and Education Piaget was not an educator He provided sound conceptual framework for viewing knowledge & education Some ideas in Piaget's theory that can be applied to teaching children Take a constructivist approach Facilitate rather than direct learning Consider child's knowledge & level of thinking Promote intellectual health - don't push Turn classroom into exploration & discovery (math game Kamii)

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

A. Processes of Development Piaget stressed that children actively construct knowledge Information is not just poured into our minds

The Information-Processing Approach

A. The Information-Processing Approach to Development Rejects the behavioral perspective (Skinner) Focuses on how children think Analyzes how children manipulate information, monitor it, & create strategies for handling it Computer metaphor Computer's information processing is limited by hardware & software Hardware limits amount of data computer can process—capacity—& speed Software limits kind of data that can be used as input, and ways that data can be manipulated

Attention

A. What Is Attention? Concentrate, focus mental resources Improves cognitive processing for many tasks At any one time, children, like adults, can pay attention to only a limited amount of information Attention is allocated in different ways Selective attention Focus on specific relevant aspect of experience while ignore what is irrelevant (one voice) Divided attention Concentrate on more than one activity at the same time (multi-tasking)

The Concept of Intelligence

A. What Is Intelligence? Intelligence - ability to solve problems & to adapt and learn from experiences Intelligence cannot be directly measured (height, weight)

creativity

Ability to think about something in novel & unusual ways - come up with unique solutions to problems Intelligence and creativity are not the same (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). Most creative people are quite intelligent Many highly intelligent people are not very creative (Sternberg, 2013a, b) Can be creative in only one domain Creativity requires divergent thinking (Guilford, 1967): Divergent thinking - produces many answers to same question Convergent thinking - produces one correct answer Characteristic of the type of thinking required on traditional intelligence tests

Giftedness

Above-average intelligence (IQ 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something Gifted and Talented programs in schools No connection between giftedness & mental disorders has been found Myth: gifted children are maladjusted Non-cognitive contributors to giftedness have received increasing attention in recent years Ellen Winner (1996) described 3 criteria that characterize children who are gifted (art, music, or academic domains): 1. Precocity Precocious - begin to master an area earlier than peers; inborn high ability in a particular domain(s

Processes of Development

Adaptation - Piaget explains how we adjust to the world Piaget was curious about how a child, at different points in development, thinks about the world and how thinking changes Schemes/Schema (building blocks of knowledge) Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge In Piaget's theory Behavioral schema (physical activities) characterize infancy Mental schema (cognitive activities) develop in childhood Two processes are responsible for how children use and adapt their schema: Assimilation Incorporate new information into existing schema Accommodation Adjust schema to fit new information and experiences To make sense out of the world, child cognitively organizes experiences Equilibration/equilibrium Mechanism used to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next Shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict or disequilibrium in trying to understand the world

Genetic Influences

Adoption studies - determine whether behavior of adopted children is more like that of biological parents OR adoptive parents 1983, 2004: biological 2012: 12-18 point increase, from low-income to middle-upper

Ethnic Comparisons

Assessment of ethnic comparisons consistently indicate following order of average scores on IQ tests, highest to lowest: (1) Asian American (2) Non-Latino White (3) Latino (4) African American Always considerable within-group variation on psychological tests African American children score lower than non-Latino White children overall BUT many African American children score higher than non-Latino White children As African Americans have gained social, economic, and educational opportunities, IQ gap between African American and non-Latino Whites decreased considerably in recent years (Nisbett & others, 2012) Potential influence on IQ test performance: Stereotype threat - anxiety one's behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one's group

Using Rules to Solve Problems

At end of preschool/early childhood years

theory of mind and autism

Connecting Through Research Approximately 1 in 150 children is estimated to have some sort of autism spectrum disorder Autism can usually be diagnosed by the age of 3 years, and sometimes earlier

Mechanisms of Change

Basic structures of information-processing system do not change with development. Development - mechanisms work together to create changes in children's cognitive skills: 1. Encoding How information gets into memory Young child sees things & hears things 4-year-old: printed S & cursive S very different 10-year-old: encode both as S - ignore differences 2. Automaticity/Automatization Ability to process information with little or no effort Middle childhood - write name Adult - driving home 3. Strategy construction Creation of new procedures for processing information (reading skills) Children's information processing is characterized by self-modification Children learn to use what they have learned in previous circumstances to adapt their responses to new situations Metacognition Cognition about cognition, or "knowing about knowing"; thinking about thinking Siegler argues that children play an active role in their cognitive development Would Piaget agree?

environmental influences

Behaviorists opposed Chomsky's hypothesis & argued language nothing more than responses acquired through reinforcement (Skinner, 1957) Behaviorists- infants need to be taught (repetition in daily life) Behavioral view of language learning has several problems: Does not explain how people create novel sentences Children learn the syntax of their native language even if not reinforced Behavioral view is no longer considered viable explanation of how children acquire language Experiences, language learned, & learning context strongly influence language acquisition (Goldfield & Snow, 2009) Language is not learned in a social vacuum - bathed in language from very early age (Kuhl, 2011, 2012) Support & involvement of adults greatly facilitate a child's language learning (Giorgis & Glazer, 2013; Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff , 2013; Tamis-LeMonda & Song, 2013) Environmental component - child-directed speech: Language spoken in a higher pitch than normal with simple words and sentences (Naoi & others, 2012). Adults often use strategies other than child-directed speech to enhance the child's acquisition of language, including recasting, expanding, and labeling Recasting Rephrase something child said, turn it into a question or restate utterance in fully grammatical sentence Expanding Restate, in a linguistically sophisticated form, what a child has said Labeling Identify names of objects Benefit when adults read books to and with them (shared reading) (Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff , 2013

Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development

C. Language and Thought Vygotsky (1962) young children use language to plan, guide, & monitor their behavior -solve tasks Use of language for self-regulation -private speech.

Cognitive Resources

Capacity and Speed of Processing Information Both biology (pruning, myelination) & experience contribute to growth in cognitive resources Capacity and Speed of Processing Information There is abundant evidence that the speed with which tasks are completed improves dramatically across the childhood years Upgrading computer

Advances in Pragmatics

Changes in pragmatics also characterize young children's language development (Bryant, 2012) Begin to engage in extended discourse (Akhtar & Herold, 2008) Cultural rules for conversations Young children use child-directed speech Become increasingly able to talk about things that are not here and not now What want for lunch tomorrow that's one 'nother day Children speak differently to adult than to same-aged peer, use more polite and formal language with adult (Shatz & Gelman, 1973)

. Scaffolding

Changing the level of support Over the course of a teaching session in which a more skilled individual (teacher or more advanced peer) adjusts the amount of guidance to fit child's current performance Dialogue Important tool of scaffolding Occurs when the child's rich but unsystematic, disorganized, & spontaneous concepts meet with the skilled helper's more systematic, logical, & rational concepts

attention

Childhood Ability to pay attention improves significantly during the preschool years - pay attention to what is obvious Sustained attention - focused attention Executive attention - planning, goals Control over attention shows important changes during early childhood (compare toddler to 4-year-old)

childhood memory

Children's memory improves considerably after infancy Can remember information if given cues & prompts One reason children remember less than adults - they are far less expert in most areas (lack of experiences) Other improvement in children's memory includes changes in memory span & use of strategies

How Strong is Effect of Heredity?

Concept of heritability - attempt to tease apart effects of heredity and environment Heritability - fraction of the variance attributed to genetics

The Influence of Heredity and Environment

Controversial area in the study of intelligence How much nature and how much nurture? 1. Genetic Influences Research review found difference in average correlations for identical & fraternal twins was not very high (Grigorenko, 2000) May be more than 1,000 genes affect intelligence

Guiding Children's Creativity

Creativity scores declining since 1990 Best strategies to help children become more creative: Encourage on Group and Individual Basis (Hennessey, 2011; Kaufman & Sternberg, 2013). Brainstorming - encouraged children to come up with creative ideas in a group, play off each other's ideas, and say practically whatever comes to mind—and come up with as many ideas as possible. Provide Environments that Stimulate Creativity Don't Overcontrol Students Encourage Internal Motivation (no tangible rewards) Help Them Think in Flexible Ways Build Children's Confidence (self-efficacy) Guide Children to Be Persistent and Delay Gratification Encourage Children to Take Intellectual Risks Encourage mistakes and use Growth Mindset Praise Failure as an opportunity to learn

Evaluating Vygotsky's Theory

Criticisms Vygotsky was not specific enough about age-related changes (not stage theory) Vygotsky does not adequately describe how changes in socioemotional capabilities contribute to cognitive development Criticisms Overemphasized the role of language in thinking Emphasis on collaboration and guidance has potential pitfalls

Culture

Culture-fair Tests aim to avoid cultural bias Two types have been developed: 1st - questions that are familiar to people from all SES and ethnic backgrounds 2nd - no verbal questions People with more education still score higher

Teaching Strategies

D. Vygotsky's theory has been embraced by many teachers and has been successfully applied to education Teaching Strategies Assess the child's ZPD Use the child's ZPD in teaching Use more skilled peers as teachers Monitor & encourage children's use of private speech Place instruction in a meaningful context (real world) Transform the classroom with Vygotskian ideas

. Emotional Intelligence (E.I.)

Daniel Goleman (1995 book Emotional Intelligence Concept developed by Peter Salovey & John Mayer (1990) Conceptualized emotional intelligence - ability to perceive & express emotion accurately and adaptively; understand emotion & emotional knowledge; use feelings to facilitate, & manage emotions in oneself and others Daniel Goleman 1995 book Critics - EI broadens concept of intelligence too far & has not been adequately assessed & researched

language

Defining Language Language: A form of communication—whether spoken, written, or signed— based on a system of symbols Consists of the words used by a community & the rules for varying and combining them. Language All human languages have some common characteristics (Berko Gleason, 2009): Infinite Generativity Ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules (language is orderly)

Evaluating Vygotsky's Theory

E. Evaluating Vygotsky's Theory Most of the world learned about Vygotsky's theory later than they learned about Piaget's theory Vygotsky's theory has not yet been evaluated as thoroughly as Piaget's theory Vygotsky's view of the importance of sociocultural influences on children's development fits with the current belief that it is important to evaluate the contextual factors in learning Vygotsky's theory is a social constructivist approach Emphasize social contexts & social interaction Collaboration, social interaction, and sociocultural activity For Vygotsky, the end point of cognitive development can differ depending on which skills are considered to be the most important in a particular culture (Piaget - formal operations) For Piaget, individuals construct knowledge by transforming, organizing, and reorganizing previous knowledge For Vygotsky, children construct knowledge through social interaction

tools of the mind

Early childhood education curriculum Emphasizes children's development of self-regulation and the cognitive foundations of literacy Created by Elena Bodrova and Deborah Leong (2007). Implemented in more than 200 classrooms Grounded in Vygotsky's theory Special attention is given to cultural tools & developing self-regulation, ZPD, scaffolding, private speech, shared activity, and play as an important activity Dramatic play has a central role Play plans - increase maturity of play Scaffold writing - improved writing skills

Cultural Bias in Testing

Early intelligence tests culturally biased, favoring people from urban (rural) environments, middle SES (low) and White (Black) Members of minority groups who do not speak English or speak nonstandard English at a disadvantage trying to understand questions in standard English

Perceptual Development & Expectations

Evaluating Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage Eleanor Gibson (2001)& others argue infants' perceptual abilities are highly developed very early in life Renee Baillargeon & colleagues (2008; 2012) document that infants as young as 3-4 months expect objects to be substantial (in the sense that other objects cannot move through them) & permanent (in the sense that objects continue to exist when they are hidden).

nature/nurture issue

Evaluating Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage Nature - Elizabeth Spelke endorses a core knowledge approach, which states that infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems - foundation Space Number Sense Object Permanence Language The core knowledge approach argues that Piaget greatly underestimated the cognitive abilities of infants, especially young infants

Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development

Evaluating Vygotsky's Theory The implication of Piaget's theory for teaching is that children need support to explore their world and discover knowledge The implication of Vygotsky's theory for teaching is that students need many opportunities to learn with the teacher and more skilled peers

Education of Children Who Are Gifted

Experts argue that education of children who are gifted, in U.S. requires a significant overhaul (Olszewski-Kubilius & Thomson, 2013) Ellen Winner (1996, 2006) argues, too often children who are ostracized, bullied & under challenged in classrooms - advanced classes Children of color, underrepresented Many eminent adults report school was negative experience, were bored & sometimes knew more than teachers

. "Sensorimotor" Stage

From birth to about 2 years Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (five senses) with physical, motoric actions (need to move) Beginning - newborns have little more than reflexes End - 2-year-olds can produce complex sensorimotor patterns & use primitive symbols Divided into six substages: 1) Simple reflexes 2) First habits and primary circular reactions 3) Secondary circular reactions 4) Coordination of secondary circular reactions 5) Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity 6) Internalization of schemes.

Nature vs. Nurture

Giftedness most likely a product of heredity AND environment (Grigorenko & others, 2012) Signs of high ability at young age Individuals with world-class status (arts, math, science, and sports) all report strong family support and years of training and practice (Bloom, 1985) Deliberate practice is an important characteristic of individuals who become experts in a particular domain

connecting with diversity

Guided Participation and Cultural Contexts Children serve a sort of apprenticeship in thinking through guided participation in social and cultural activities Adults give children opportunities to learn about cultural traditions and practices through routines & play Guided Participation and Cultural Contexts Guided participation is widely used around the world, but cultures may differ in the goals of development-what content is to be learned-and the means for providing guided participation

2. Habituation & Dishabituation

Habituation Pay less attention to a stimulus after repeated presentations of the stimulus (bored) Respect when they look away Dishabituation Recovery of a habituated response after a change (novelty) Infants' attention is so strongly governed by novelty & habituation that when an object becomes familiar, attention becomes shorter, more easily distracted

III. Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development

Lev Vygotsky (1962) Emphasized children actively construct knowledge & understanding Children described as social creatures more than in Piaget's theory Children develop ways of thinking & understanding primarily through social interaction Children's cognitive development depends on tools provided by society, & their minds shaped by cultural context in which they live

Heritability

Heritability index computed using correlational techniques Highest degree is1.00 Correlations.70 and above suggest strong genetic influence American Psychological Association (APA) concluded - late adolescence heritability of intelligence about .75 - strong genetic influence KEY POINT Heritability refers to specific group (population), NOT to individuals. Researchers use concept of heritability try to describe differences or differences between groups Most research on heredity & environment does NOT include environments that differ radically

caring connections

How Parents Can Facilitate Infants' & Toddlers' Language Development Baron (1992) & Galinsky (2010) ideas to help parents facilitate infants' & toddlers' language development Be an active conversational partner Talk in a slowed-down pace and don't worry about how you sound to other adults when you talk to your baby Use parent-look and parent-gesture, name what you are looking at How Parents Can Facilitate Infants' & Toddlers' Language Development Simple, concrete, and repetitive Play games (peek-a-boo; pat-a-cake) Listen Expand and elaborate language abilities and horizons Adjust to child's idiosyncrasies instead of working against them Resist making normative comparisons

infancy

How do infants attend to something? Newborn can detect contour & fixate on it Older infant scan patterns 4-months can selectively attend to an object

1st memories

Implicit memory Memory without conscious recollection. Memories of skills & routine procedures that are performed automatically (ride a bike) Explicit memory Conscious memory of facts and experiences. Does not occur until the second half of the 1st year Day Improves substantially during the 2nd year Year

3. Joint Attention

Individuals focus on the same object or event Requires: 1) Ability to track another's behavior, such as following someone's gaze 2) One person directing another's attention 3) Reciprocal interaction Early in infancy, joint attention a caregiver pointing or using words to direct infant's attention Emerging forms of joint attention occur 7-8 months, toward the end of the 1st year joint attention skills are frequently observed "gaze following" By 1st birthday, infants begin to direct adults to objects that capture their interest Joint attention plays important roles in many aspects of infant development and considerably increases infants' ability to learn from other people (language) Joint attention skills in infancy also are associated with the development of self-regulation later in childhood

Developmental Changes & Domain-Specific Giftedness

Individuals who are highly gifted are typically not gifted in many domains Research on giftedness - increasingly focused on specific domains (Feldman & Morelock, 2011) During childhood years, domains in which individuals are gifted usually emerge

Evaluating Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage

Infant's cognitive world is not as neatly packaged as Piaget wrote Much of the new research suggests that Piaget's view of sensorimotor development needs to be modified Conclusions Most developmentalists today agree that Piaget: Underestimated the early cognitive accomplishments of infants Both nature and nurture are involved in infants' cognitive development Wasn't specific enough

infantile amnesia

Infantile amnesia - most adults can remember little if anything from the first 3 years of life Elementary school-age children also do not remember much of their early childhood What do you remember?

memory-infancy

Infants as young as 3 mos. limited memory First Memories Perceptual-motor information Infants kick, move mobile, remember (2 ½ mos.) infants of 2-6 mos. remember perceptual-motor information through ages 1-1/2 to 2 years

The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

Intellectual Disability (formerly Mental Retardation) R-Word: Spread the Word to End the Word Condition of limited mental ability Low IQ, usually below 70 Difficulty adapting to everyday life First exhibits above characteristics by age 18

an interactionist view of lang

Interactionist view emphasizes both biology & experience contribute to language development (Wagner & Hoff , 2013) Interaction of biology & experience - seen in variations in acquisition of language Children vary in ability to acquire language, variation cannot be readily explained by differences in environment alone Children benefit from opportunities to talk and be talked with Rich verbal environment, many positive child outcomes (Gunning, 2013; Tamis-LeMonda & Song, 2013). Adults who pay attention to what children are trying to say, expand children's utterances, read to them, and label things in the environment, are providing valuable benefits (Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff , 2013).

thinking in infancy

Interest in thinking during infancy has focused on concept formation & categorization Concepts Cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas. Categories Group objects, events, & characteristics on basis of common properties. Without concepts, you would see each object and event as unique; you would not be able to make any generalizations Infants form concepts early in their development 3-4 months of age can group together objects with similar appearances, such as animals Perceptual categories - based on similar perceptual features- size, color, movement, and parts of objects (animal legs) - 7-9 months Further advances in categorization occur in 2nd year Infant's advances in processing information—attention, memory, imitation & concept formation—much richer, more gradual and less stage-like, occurs earlier than Piaget thought

Limits of Preoperational Thought

Irreversibility and the Limitations of Preoperational Thought Not able to reverse a process; can't undo it Classification and the Limitations of Preoperational Thought Limited skills in classifying objects Focus on Appearance Girl or boy? Static Reasoning "My grandma ain't got no kids"

Language's Rule Systems

Language is highly ordered and organized (de Villiers & de Villiers, 2013) 1. Phonology Sound system of a language Includes the sounds that are used and how they may be combined (Kuhl & Damasio, 2012) Phoneme - basic unit of sound in a language; smallest unit of sound that affects meaning 26 letters, 44 phonemes in English (/f/ - field, photo) Morphology Rule system that governs how words are formed in a language The rules of morphology describe the way meaningful units (morphemes) can be combined in words (Brown, 2013). Morpheme - minimal unit of meaning Cannot be broken into smaller meaningful parts Unladylike un lady like Grammar - morpheme can mark tense or number Dogs dog s Syntax Way words are combined to form acceptable phrases & sentences (subject+verb+object) Often used interchangeably with the term grammar All language syntax systems have some common ground Semantics Meaning of words and sentences Destination and Last stop Pragmatics Appropriate use of language in different contexts Take turns speaking in a discussion Polite language Tell a funny joke Pragmatic rules can be complex and differ from one culture to another (Bryant, 2012)

memory strategies

Learn effective strategies: key aspect to improve memory Strategies can improve long-term memory: Organization Used by older children & adults (words in categories) Elaboration (adolescents spontaneously) Can teach school-age Imagery Older children (Rosenblum) memory teaching strategies: Repeat with variation on the instructional information and link early and often School-age children

early childhood

Learn special features of own language, there are extensive regularities in how they acquire particular language (Berko Gleason, 2009; de Villiers & de Villiers, 2013). Language problems, including speech & hearing, get identified

Bayley Scales of Infant Development

Nancy Bayley (1969) - widely used scales to assess infant behavior & predict later development. 5 scales of current version, Bayley-III (2006): Cognitive Language Motor Socioemotional Adaptive 1st 3 scales are administered directly to infant Later 2 scales, questionnaires given to caregiver The Bayley-III more appropriate for use in clinical settings than the 2 previous editions (Lennon & others, 2008) 6 months - show emotion, search for objects out of reach, approach mirror 12 months - inhibit behavior, imitate words, respond to specific requests

Cultural-Familial Intellectual Disability

Often results from growing up in below-average intellectual environment - lack of prenatal care, lack of stimulation & opportunity (nurture) Identified in schools, often fail As adults, usually invisible, perhaps because adult settings don't tax their cognitive skills as heavily. May also be increase intelligence as they move toward adulthood

Heritability Index - FLAWS

Only as good as data entered into analysis & interpretations made from it Data virtually all from traditional IQ tests, NOT always best indicator of intelligence Assumes can treat genetic & environmental influences as factors that can be separated with each contributing a distinct amount of influence BUT always nature & nurture

Intellectual Disability

Organic intellectual disability - genetic disorder or lower level of intellectual functioning caused by brain damage - nature Down syndrome - an extra chromosome is present Fragile X syndrome - abnormality in X chromosome

C. Preoperational Stage

Preoperational stage - 2 to 7 years Preoperational emphasizes child does not yet perform operations- internalized actions that allow child to do mentally what before they could do only physically (reversible mental actions) Preoperational thought -beginning of the ability to reconstruct in thought what has been established in behavior Symbolic thought goes beyond simple connections of sensory information & physical action Stable concepts are formed, mental reasoning emerges, egocentrism is present, and magical beliefs are constructed Creative, imaginative time Substages: Symbolic function substage (2-4) Begin to represent objects not present with words (pretend play), drawings Intuitive thought substage (4-7) The Symbolic Function Substage (First substage) Occurring roughly, 2 to 4 years Gain ability to mentally represent an object that is not present This ability vastly expands the child's mental world Egocentrism Inability to distinguish between one's own perspective & someone else's perspective Piaget and Inhelder (1969) studied children's egocentrism by devising the three mountains task Animism Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action "The sidewalk made me mad; it made me fall down." A young child who uses animism fails to distinguish the appropriate occasions for using human and nonhuman perspectives. The Intuitive Thought Substage (2nd substage) Approximately 4 to 7 years Children begin to use primitive reasoning & want to know the answers to all sorts of questions This substage is called intuitive, because young children seem so sure about their knowledge and understanding, yet are unaware of how they know what they know Centration and the Limitations of Preoperational Thought Centration - centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others Center on one aspect Centration and the Limitations of Preoperational Thought Conservation - awareness that altering an object's or substance's appearance does not change its basic properties Centration and the Limitations of Preoperational Thought Children often vary in their performance on different conservation tasks Child might be able to conserve liquid but not number Researchers have discovered links between children's number conservation and the brain's development Centration and the Limitations of Preoperational Thought Some developmentalists do not believe Piaget was entirely correct in his estimate of when children's conservation skills emerge Rochel Gelman (1969) showed that when the child's attention to relevant aspects of the conservation task is improved, the child is more likely to conserve Gelman suggests conservation appears earlier than Piaget thought & attention is especially important in explaining conservation

Changes in Syntax & Semantics

Preschool children also learn & apply rules of syntax -word order (passive voice) Gains in semantics also characterize early childhood Cup, mug 18 months to 6 years, learn about one new word every waking hour (Carey, 1977; Gelman & Kalish, 2006) Enter first grade, estimated know about 14,000 words (Clark, 1993) Enter elementary school with small vocabulary, at risk for developing reading problems (Berninger, 2006) How do children learn so many new words so quickly? Benefit from hearing words mature speakers use to test & revise word-referent connections (Gershkoff-Stowe & Hahn, 2007) Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff emphasize 6 key principles in vocabulary development: Children learn the words they hear most often Children learn words for things & events that interest them Children learn words best in responsive & interactive contexts rather than in passive contexts

Understanding Phonology & Morphology

Preschool years, most children gradually become more sensitive to sounds of spoken words & become increasingly capable of producing all the sounds of their language 3 years, can produce all vowel sounds & most consonant sounds Produce complex consonant clusters: str- & -mpt Rhymes, poems, silly words Move beyond two-word utterances, demonstrate knowledge of morphology rules (Park & others, 2012) Begin using plural & possessive forms of nouns (such as dogs and dog's) Evidence for changes in use of morphological rules - overgeneralize (overregularize) rules: "foots" for feet; "goed" for went Construct language

Language and Thought

Private speech (self-talk) Important tool of thought during the early childhood years Vygotsky argued that language and thought initially develop independently of each other and then merge Private speech Children must communicate externally & use language for a long period of time before they can make transition from external to internal speech This transition period occurs 3 to 7 years of age and involves talking to oneself After a while, the self-talk becomes second nature to children, and can act without verbalizing -internalize egocentric speech in the form of inner speech, which becomes thoughts. Private speech Vygotsky reasoned children who use a lot of private speech are more socially competent than those who don't For Vygotsky, when young children talk to themselves, they are using language to govern their behavior and guide themselves. Researchers have found support for Vygotsky's view that private speech plays a positive role in children's development

A. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Range of tasks too difficult for children to master alone but that can be mastered with guidance & assistance of adults or more-skilled children

children as eyewitnesses

Reconstructive Memory Children have schemas for all sorts of information, schemas affect how children encode, store & retrieve memories Bugs Bunny and Disneyland Factors influence accuracy of a young child's memory Age differences in susceptibility to suggestion (preschool) Individual differences in susceptibility Reconstructive Memory Factors influence accuracy of a young child's memory Interviewing techniques can produce substantial distortions in child reports about highly salient events Neutral tone Limited use misleading questions Absence of motivation to make false report

Executive Functioning

Relatively stimulus-driven toddler transforms into a preschool child capable of flexible, goal-directed problem solving that characterizes executive functioning Researchers have discovered that advances in executive functioning in the preschool years are linked with school readiness & later success Some researchers have found that executive functioning is a better predictor of school readiness than general IQ Tools of the Mind, Montessori

Increasing IQ Scores

Scores on tests have been increasing so fast that high percentage of people regarded as having average intelligence in early 1900s would be considered below average in intelligence today Increase might result from environmental factors: Increased exposure to information and education Prenatal & early postnatal nutrition (Lynn, 2009) More highly educated parents Children born into higher-income families

1. Babbling and Other Vocalizations

Sequence during the first year: 1. Cry - at birth, communicate distress & other information 2. Coo - about 1-2 mos.; gurgling, vowel sounds 3. Babble - about 6 mos.; consonant-vowel combinations -Experience expectant-all babies do it; babbling=this -10 month old babies who are deaf use a dozen distinct hand gestures, in repetitive manner

memory span

Short-term memory - very limited capacity Short-term memory increases during childhood Small chunks Phone number (song) Speed of processing increases Rehearsal of information improves More effective in using strategies to remember in middle childhood than in early childhood

storage process

Short-term memory limited capacity to retain information (up to 15 to 30 seconds) Long-term memory relatively permanent & unlimited memory

Comparison with Piaget's Theory

Some of information-processing approach is constructivist - see children as directing their own cognitive development Describe ways individuals do & do not understand important concepts at different points in life & try to explain how more advanced understanding grows out of less advanced understanding Unlike Piaget Do not see development occurring in distinct stages Individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity to process information

Do Children Have One Intelligence or Many?

Some psychologists support concept of g - general intelligence (Irwing & others, 2012; Lynn, 2012; Penke & others, 2012) Advocates of concept of general intelligence point to its success in predicting school & job performance (Deary, 2012) CORRELATION Controversy - intelligence: General ability, specific abilities, or both? (Roberts & Lipnevich, 2012; Sternberg, 2013a, c)

The Neuroscience of Intelligence

Some questions about the brain's (neuroscience) role in intelligence being explored: Is having a big brain linked to higher intelligence? Is intelligence located in certain brain regions? Is intelligence related to how fast the brain processes information? Is big brain linked to higher intelligence? Recent studies, MRI scans, total brain volume -moderate correlation between brain size & intelligence (Carey, 2007; Luders & others, 2009) Intelligence linked to specific regions of the brain? Recently found intelligence is distributed more widely across brain regions - not just frontal lobes (Lee & others, 2012; Sepulcre & others, 2012) Is intelligence related to how fast the brain processes information? Studying role neurological speed might play in intelligence (Waiter & others, 2009) Recent study found speed of neurological functioning faster for children were intellectually gifted than children with average intelligence (Liu & others, 2007) Technology advances, likely to see more specific conclusions about the brain's role in intelligence (Haier, 2011)

Do People Have One or Many Intelligences?

Sternberg unique in emphasizing creative intelligence Gardner includes types of intelligence not addressed by other views Multiple intelligence theories motivated educators to develop programs that instruct students in different domains (Sternberg, 2012a, b, 2013a, c) Multiple intelligence critics- no research base to support these theories, yet (Jensen, 2008)

Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence

Test focuses on infant's ability to process information: Encode attributes of objects Detect similarities & differences between objects Form mental representations Retrieve representations Correlates with measures of intelligence in older children Measures of habituation & dishabituation linked to intelligence in childhood, adolescence, and even adulthood

II. The Development of Intelligence

Tests of Infant Intelligence (perceptual, motor, social) Arnold Gesell (1934) - developed measure helped sort out potentially "normal" babies from "abnormal" ones (typically developing) Developmental quotient (DQ) combines subscores in 4 categories for overall score Motor Language Adaptive Personal-social

Intelligence Tests

Two main intelligence tests administered to children, individually, today: Stanford Binet test & Wechsler Scales 1. The Binet Tests 1904, the French Ministry of Education asked psychologist, Alfred Binet, to devise a method of identifying children who were unable to learn in school Binet and his student, Theophile Simon, developed an intelligence test to meet this request The Binet Tests Binet developed the concept of mental age (MA), an individual's level of mental development relative to others 1912, William Stern created the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ), to refer to person's mental age divided by chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100 MA/CA X 100 The Binet Tests Binet test revised many times - incorporate advances in the understanding of intelligence and intelligence testing Revisions called Stanford-Binet tests (Stanford University) The Stanford-Binet Tests Scores on Stanford-Binet test approximate a normal distribution A normal distribution is symmetrical, majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range of scores, few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range Current Stanford-Binet test administered individually from age 2 years - adult Variety of items, verbal responses, & nonverbal responses 2. The Stanford-Binet Tests The 4th ed. of Stanford-Binet published 1985 Important addition, analysis of individual's responses in 4 functions: Verbal reasoning Quantitative reasoning Abstract visual reasoning Short-term memory The Stanford-Binet Tests A general composite score is obtained to reflect overall intelligence Stanford-Binet, one of the most widely used tests to assess students' intelligence . The Wechsler Scales Developed by psychologist David Wechsler Includes: Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, 3rd Ed. (WPPSI-III) - children ages 2 years, 6 months - 7 years, 3 months The Wechsler Scales Wechsler scales provide overall IQ score & scores on subtests yield several composite indexes: The Verbal Comprehension Index The Working Memory Index The Processing Speed Index The Wechsler Scales Subtest & composite scores determine areas in which the child is strong, weak Intelligence tests are given on an individual basis. 3. Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests Intelligence tests have real-world applications as predictors of school & job success (Deary, 2012; Reynolds & Livingston, 2012) Many factors contribute to success in school and work: Motivation to succeed Physical and Mental Health Social Skills (Sternberg, 2012) Single number provided by IQ tests can easily lead to false expectations about an individual (Rosnow & Rosenthal, 1996) 3. The Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests IQ scores misused & can become self-fulfilling prophecies (Weinstein, 2004) To be effective, use IQ test score with other information about the child (Urbina, 2011): Developmental history Medical background Performance in school/social competencies Family experiences

Evolution and the Brain's Role in Language

Two regions involved in language were first discovered in studies of individuals with brain-damage: Broca's area In the left frontal lobe of the brain, involved in speech production & grammatical processing Wernicke's area Region of the brain's left hemisphere involved in language comprehension Damage to either of these areas produces types of aphasia: Loss or impairment of language processing (understand or express speech)

object permanence

Understand objects & events continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched Watch infant reaction's reaction when object "disappears" Object Permanence - important accomplishment How Do Researchers Determine Infant's Understanding of Object Permanence? Violation of Expectations When infants look longer at the event that violates their expectations, it indicates they are surprised by it Infants develop object permanence earlier than Piaget proposed

what is intelligence

We assess intelligence only indirectly by studying & comparing intelligent acts people perform Because intelligence is such an abstract, broad concept, it is not surprising that there are different ways to define it and assess it

memory

What Is Memory? Memory is retaining information over time Basic processes of memory:

early literacy- english in us

What should a literacy program for preschool children be like? Build instruction on what children already know: oral language, reading, and writing Language skills, sounds, how words are combined, letter identification, and knowledge about print (Gunning, 2013). Environmental Print

early literacy

What should a literacy program for preschool children be like? Parents and teachers need to provide a supportive environment to help children develop literacy skills (Tamis-LeMonda & Song, 2013). What are some strategies for using books effectively with preschool children? Ellen Galinsky (2010) recently emphasized: Use books to initiate conversation with young children. Ask them to put themselves in the book characters' places and imagine what they might be thinking or feeling. Use what and why questions. Ask young children what they think is going to happen next in a story and then see if it occurs. What are some strategies for using books effectively with preschool children? Ellen Galinsky (2010) recently emphasized strategies: Encourage children to ask questions about stories. Choose some books that play with language. Creative books on the alphabet, including those with rhymes, often interest young children. Longitudinal studies indicate the importance of early language skills to school readiness: Children's early home environment influenced their early language skills, which in turn predicted their readiness for school (Forget-Dubois & others, 2009) English is one of the more difficult languages to learn because of its irregular spellings and pronunciations In countries where English is spoken, the rate of dyslexia is higher (linked to spelling & phonetic rules)

fast mapping

Why can children learn so many new words so quickly? Fast mapping is one possible explanation - ability to make an initial connection between a word and what it stands for, after only limited exposure to the word (Woodward, Markman, & Fitzimmons, 1994) Researchers have found that exposure to words on multiple occasions, over several days, results in more successful word learning than the same number of exposures in a single day (Childers & Tomasello, 2002)

Language and Cognition

Williams syndrome Genetic birth disorder first described in 1961, affects about 1 in 20,000 births (Mervis & Becerra, 2007; Morris, 2010) Williams syndrome stems from genetic deletion on chromosome 7 (Musolino & Landau, 2012) Most noticeable features of syndrome include unique combination of expressive verbal skills with an extremely low IQ and limited visuospatial skills and motor control (O'Hearn & Luna, 2009) williams syndrome Natural-born storytellers, highly expressive narratives (Mervis & John, 2010) Despite having excellent verbal skills & competent interpersonal skills, most individuals with Williams syndrome cannot live independent lives (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2001) Aside from being an interesting genetic disorder, Williams syndrome offers insights into the typical development of thinking and language (Carney, Brown & Henry, 2013) Williams syndrome raises possibility that thinking & language might not be so closely related Williams disorder is due to defective gene that seems to protect expressive verbal ability but not reading and many other cognitive skills (Carney, Brown, & Henry, 2013)

working memory

Working memory & attention control predicted growth in emergent literacy & number skills in young children from low-income families Assessment of working memory in kindergarten was a key process in predicting math achievement at the end of first grade

1. Processes & Types of Memory

Working memory mental "workbench" where you manipulate & assemble information (make decisions, solve problems & comprehend written and spoken language