child development final exam

Discuss the nature of adolescents

(p. 250) Acting out and boundary testing are time-honored ways in which adolescents move toward accepting, rather than rejecting parental values. Ethnic, cultural, gender, socioeconomic, age, and lifestyle differences influence the actual life trajectory of every adolescent. Researchers argue that the US has a fragmented social policy for youth that too often has focused only on the negative developmental deficits of adolescents, especially health-compromising behaviors such as drug use and delinquency, and not enough on positive, strength based approaches.

Discuss the development of healthy eating and exercise habits in early adolescence.

(p. 259) From 1990s to 2009-2010, the percentage of overweight 12 to 19 year olds increased from 11% to 17%. In this time frame, prevalence of obesity in adolescent boys increased from 14% to 19%. *Obese adolescents* are more likely to develop severe obesity in emerging adulthood than were overweight or normal-weight adolescents. (p.260) *Individuals become less active* as they progress through adolescence. Adolescent boys were more likely to engage in moderate-vigorous exercise than were girls. Ethnic differences in exercise participation: non-Latino white boys exercised the most, African American girls the least. *Positive outcomes of exercise*: reduced triglyceride levels, lower blood pressure, and a lower incidence of type II diabetes. In 8th, 10th, and 12th graders- lower levels of alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use. Children and adolescents who engaged in the *highest amount of daily screen based activity were less likely to exercise daily*...these individuals were also almost twice as likely to be overweight as their more active, less sedentary counterparts.

Explain the role of parental monitoring during adolescence (disclosure)

(p. 278) *Monitoring includes supervising* adolescents choice of social settings, activities, and friends, as well as their academic efforts. Lack of parental monitoring is linked to juvenile delinquency. (p. 279) *A current interest* involving parental monitoring focuses on *adolescents' management of their parents' access to information*, especially disclosing or concealing strategies regarding their activities. -When parents engage in *positive parenting practices*, adolescents are more likely to disclose information. -*Disclosure increases* when parents ask adolescents' questions and when a high level of trust, acceptance, and quality characterizes adolescents' relationship with parents. -Adolescents' disclosure to parents about their whereabouts, activities, and friends is *linked to positive adolescent adjustment*.

Describe the influence of ethnicity on adolescent development (read pages 278 and 287)

*Ethnic Identity*: Enduring aspect of the self that includes sense of membership in an ethnic group, and attitudes and feelings related to that membership • Many adolescents from ethnic minorities develop a *bicultural identity*: Identify in some ways with their ethnic group and in other ways with the majority culture -1st generation more secure in their identities and less likely to change. 2nd generation more likely to think of themselves as "American" • *bicultural orientation*...selecting characteristics of the U.S. culture that help them to survive and advance while still retaining aspects of their culture of origin) -High rates of immigration in U.S. They experience stressors: language barriers, dislocations and separations from support networks, changes in socioeconomic status (SES), and the dual struggle to preserve identity and to acculturate. -Latino families maintain a strong commitment to family when they immigrate to the U.S. Divorce rates for Latino families are lower than for non-Latino White families of similar SES. -Many ethnic adolescents experience a double disadvantage: 1) prejudice, discrimination, and bias because of their ethnic minority status; and 2) the stressful effects of poverty

Define and discuss adolescent egocentrism, the imaginary audience, and the personal fable (read in text)

Adolescent Cognition • *Adolescent egocentrism*: Heightened self- consciousness of adolescents (two key components are imaginary audience and personal fable) 1) *Imaginary audience*: Adolescents' belief that others are as interested in them as they are in themselves • Attention-getting behavior motivated by desire to be noticed, visible, and "on stage" 2) *Personal fable*: Involves an adolescent's sense of uniqueness and invincibility (social media feeds this)

Define juvenile delinquency (p. 288) (delinquency rates, causes of delinquency)

• *Juvenile delinquency*: any adolescent who breaks the law or engages in behavior that is considered illegal -broad concept: legal infractions range from littering to murder...records do not accurately reflect the number of illegal acts juvenile delinquents commit. • *Delinquency rates* • Males more likely to engage in delinquency than females • Rates among minority groups and lower-SES youth are especially high...they have less influence over the judicial decision-making process in the U.S. and may be judged delinquent more readily than their White, middle-SES counterparts • *Causes of delinquency* -Erikson says delinquency is an attempt to establish an identity, even if it's a negative one • Lower class culture: norms are antisocial, or counterproductive to norms of society at large • Parents less skilled in discouraging antisocial behavior...parental monitoring in adolescence and ongoing parental support were linked to a lower incidence of criminal behavior in emerging adulthood -family therapy is often effective in reducing delinquency • Siblings and delinquent peers

Discuss 4 problems that affect most adolescents and prevention/ intervention programs for adolescent problems (p. 293)

• Four problems that affect the most adolescents: 1) Drug abuse 2) Juvenile delinquency 3) Sexual problems 4) School-related problems Problem behaviors in adolescents are interrelated. -Heavy substance abuse = early sexual activity, lower grades, dropping out of school, and delinquency -Early initiation of sexual activity = use of cigarettes/ alcohol, MJ and other illicit drugs, lower grades, dropping out of school, and delinquency -Delinquency= early sexual activity, early pregnancy, substance abuse, dropping out of school -10% of adolescents engage in all 4 of these behaviors -20% of adolescents engage in 2-3 of the four main problem behaviors Successful prevention intervention programs include: • *Intensive individualized attention*: high risk adolescents are attached to a responsible adult who gives the adolescent attention and deals w/ adolescent's specific needs • *Community-wide multiagency approaches*: health promotion campaign uses local media and community education w/ a substance-abuse curriculum in schools • *Early identification and intervention*: reaching younger children and their families before children develop problems, or at the onset of their problems (the Perry Preschool program)

Discuss the use of media by adolescents and parenting issues in this regard (p. 288) (amount of use, media multitasking, texting/ voice mailing, proactive monitoring of adolescent media use, preference for online communication)

• The media • Technology and digitally mediated communication • e-mail, instant messaging, social networking sites: • Facebook, chat rooms, video sharing and photo sharing, • Multi player online computer games and virtual worlds (p. 288) A survey revealed, 8 to 11 yr olds use media 5 hr and 29 min a day, 11 to 14 yr olds use it 8 hr and 40 min a day, and 15 to 18 yr olds an average of 7 hr and 58 min a day. (Media use jumps over 3 hours in adolescence!) -A study of 8 to 12 yr old girls found that a *higher level of media multitasking was linked to negative social well-being* while a higher level of face-to-face communication was associated w/ positive social well-being indicators, such as greater social success, feeling more normal, and having fewer friends whom parents thought were a bad influence. -*Text messaging* has become the main way adolescents connect w/ their friends surpassing face-to-face contact, e-mail, instant messaging, and voice calling. *Voice mailing* is the primary way that most adolescents prefer to connect with parents. -Both maternal and paternal authoritative parenting predicted *proactive monitoring of adolescent media use*, including restriction of certain media from adolescent use and parent-adolescent discussion of exposure to questionable media content. -Problematic mother-adolescent (age 13) relationships that involved undermining attachment and autonomy predicted emerging adults' *preference for online communication* and greater probability of forming a poor quality relationship with someone met online.

Define and discuss service learning and its benefits

(p. 272) *Service learning* is a form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community. Adolescents engage in activities such as tutoring, helping older adults, working in a hospital, assisting at a child-care center, or cleaning up a vacant lot to make it into a play area. -An important goal of service learning is to encourage adolescents to become less self-centered and more strongly motivated to help others. -Service learning is more effective when 2 conditions are met: 1) giving students some degree of choice in the service activities in which they participate, and 2) providing students opportunities to reflect about their participation. -*Improvements in adolescent development related to service learning* include higher grades in school, increased goal setting, higher self-esteem, an improved sense of being able to make a difference for others, and increased likelihood that the adolescents will serve as future volunteers. Adolescent girls participated in service learning more than adolescent boys.

Explain peer groups and the importance of peer groups (cliques, crowds)

(p. 282) Around eighth and ninth grades, conformity to peers—especially to their antisocial standards—peaks. U.S. adolescents more likely than Japanese adolescents to put pressure on peers to resist parental influence. Adolescents are more likely to conform to peers when they are uncertain about their social identity and when they are in the presence of someone they perceive to be of higher status than they do. *Cliques*: small groups that range from 2 to about 12 individuals and average about 5 or 6 individuals....the clique members are usually of the same sex and about the same age. Cliques can form because of similar activities (being on same soccer team) or because of friendship (having mutual friends). They often develop a friendship if they stay in the clique. In cliques, adolescents share ideas and hang out together. Often they develop an in-group identity to which they believe their clique is better than other cliques. *Crowds*: larger than cliques and less personal. Adolsecents usually members of a crowd based on reputation, and they may or may not spend much time together. Many crowds are defined by the activities they engage in ("jocks" are good at sports; "druggies")

Discuss research regarding adolescent eating disorders (anorexia nervosa & bulimia nervosa)

*Anorexia nervosa*: Relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation • Weight less than 85% of what is considered normal for a person's age and height • An intense fear of gaining weight that does not decrease with weight loss • Having a distorted image of their body shape • Amenorrhea (lack of menstration) - (p. 263) Typically begins in early to middle adolescent years. Most individuals w/ anorexia nervous are non-Latina White adolescents or young adult females from well-educated, middle- and upper-income families and are competitive and high achieving. They set high standards, become stressed about not being able to reach the standards, and are intensely concerned about how others perceive them. Unabel to meet high expectations, they turn to something they can control—their weight. Problems in family functioning are linked to appearance of anorexia nervosa in adolescent girls, and family therapy is often the most effective treatment of adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa. Genes play an important role in anorexia nervosa. The physical effects of dieting may change neural networks and sustain the disordered pattern. - 10 times more likely to occur in females than males -A lot of times this comes from a home in which perfection is encouraged...happens when parents are very enmeshed in children's lives *Bulimia nervosa*: Individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge pattern Most bulimics... • Are preoccupied with food • Have an intense fear of becoming overweight • Are depressed or anxious • Have a distorted body image • Typically fall within a normal weight range, making it more difficult to detect than anorexia -(p. 264) Many women who develop bulimia nervosa were somewhat overweight before the onset of the disorder, and the binge eating often began during an episode of dieting

Discuss the characteristics of puberty for each gender. (sexual maturation, height, weight) (growth spurt) (hormonal changes)

*Puberty*: a period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes that occur primarily during early adolescence. It is not a single, sudden event. Difficult to pinpoint beginning/end. -Most noticeable changes are signs of sexual maturation and increases in height and weight. *Sexual Maturation, Height, and Weight* *Male puberty order*: increase in penis and testicle size, appearance of straight pubic hair, minor voice change, first ejaculation (masturbation or wet dream), appearance of kinky pubic hair, onset of maximum growth in height and weight, growth of hair in armpits, more detectable voice changes, & growth of facial hair. *Female puberty order*: breasts enlarge or pubic hair appears, hair appears in armpits, grows in height and hips become wider than her shoulders, menarche (girls first menstruation) comes rather late in pubertal cycle. -In early adolescence, girls outweigh boys and are taller, but by age 14, boys begin to outweigh girls and have surpassed girls in height by the end of middle school. -*Growth spurt* happens 2 years earlier for girls than for boys. Average age of start of growth spurt is 9 for girls and 11 for boys. (During growth spurt, girls grow 3.5 inches a year in height and boys grow about 4) The *peak rate of pubertal change* is age 11 ½ for girls and 13 ½ for boys. *Hormonal Changes* *Hormones*: powerful, chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through the body by the bloodstream. *Hypothalamus*: structure in the brain that monitors eating and sex *Pituitary gland*: endocrine gland that controls growth and regulates other glands *Gonads*: the testes in males and ovaries in females *Testosterone*: hormone associated in boys with development of genitals, an increase in height, and a change in voice (increased 18 fold in boys and 2 fold in girls during puberty) *Estradiol*: (type of estrogen) associated with girls' breast, uterine, and skeletal development (increased 18 fold in girls and only 2 fold in boys)

Describe the transition from elementary school to junior high school.

*Top-dog phenomenon*: Move from the top position in elementary school to: The lowest position in middle or junior high school The transition to middle or junior high school...tough because this is when puberty starts -*These changes include*: puberty and related concerns about body image, the emergence of some aspects of formal operational thought including some changes in social cognition, increased responsibility and decreased dependency on parents, change to larger, more impersonal school structure, go from one teacher to many teachers and from a small/ homogenous set of peers to a larger/ heterogeneous set of peers, and increased focus on achievement and performance. • A difficult transition • *Drop in school satisfaction*...compared with their earlier feelings as sixth graders, the 7th graders were less satisfied with school, less committed to school, and liked their teachers less.

Describe the transition from junior high school to high school

Critics say that high schools have *low expectations* for success and *inadequate standards* for learning; too often high schools *foster passivity* instead of creating a variety of pathways for students to achieve an identity. (p. 270) The *negative social aspects* of adolescent lives undermine their academic achievement. Adolescents *peer culture groups demand conformity*. High school is supposed to be about getting an education, but its actually about *navigating the social worlds of peer relations* that may or may not value education and academic achievement. U.S. high school drop out rates have declined, but the Latino drop out rate has remained higher. Asians are least likely to drop out. High dropout rates of low-income areas of inner cities. In considering high school dropout rates, it is important to examine age, the number of years it takes to complete high school, ethnicity, gender, and school location.

Compare how adolescents in different culture experience rites of passage

Culture and adolescent development • Cross-cultural comparisons • Traditions and changes in adolescence around the globe • Health • Gender • Family • Peers • Rites of passage: (p. 287) Ceremony that marks an individual's transition from one status to another. In primitive culture, rites of passage are avenue by which adolescents gain access to sacred adult practices, to knowledge, and to sexuality. Usually characterized by some form of ritual death and rebirth, or by means of contact with the spiritual world. • Some forms of rites of passage: the Jewish bar and bat mitzvah, the Catholic confirmation, and social debuts. School graduation ceremonies are closest to being culture-wide rites of passage in the U.S.

Discuss the incidence and the causal factors of depression

Depression (p. 291-292) • 15%-20% of adolescents ever experience major depressive disorder • by age 15, *adolescent females* have rate of depression that is twice that of adolescent males...females tend to ruminate in their depressed mood and amplify it; females self-images (especially body images) are more negative than males; females face more discrimination than males do; and puberty occurs earlier for girls than for boys • In Chinese culture, males experienced more stress because of stressful life events and less positive coping style • Certain *dopamine related genes* associated w/ depressive symptoms in adolescents • Link between adolescent girls' perceived stress and depression occurred only when girls had the short version of the serotonin-related gene—5HTTLPR • *Family factors placing adolescents at risk for depression*: having a depressed parent, emotionally unavailable parents, parents who have high marital conflict, parents w/ financial problems • *Poor peer relationships associated w/ adolescent depression*: not having relationship w/ best friend, having less contact w/ friends, having depressed friends, experiencing peer rejection • Females: relational depression and problems in adolescent romantic relationships • Treatment: drug therapy using serotonin reuptake inhibitors, cognitive behavioral therapy, and interpersonal therapy

Describe effective schools for young adolescents

Effective schools for young adolescents: • Develop smaller communities that lessen impersonality of middle schools • Lower student-counselor ratios to 10-to-1 • Involve parents and community leaders • Integrate several disciplines in a flexible curriculum • Boost students' fitness with more programs • Provide public health care

Discuss how parents can help their adolescents to develop autonomy

Families: • Autonomy and attachment (p. 279) Parents may feel frustrated because they expect their teenager to heed their advice, to want to spend time with the family, and to grow up to do what is right. • Parents must weigh needs for autonomy and control, independence and connection • Adolescents' ability to attain autonomy and gain control over their behavior is facilitated by appropriate adult reactions to their desire for control. • Boys are given more independence. (p. 279) Latino parents protect and monitor their daughters more closely than is the case for non-Latino parents. • Securely attached adolescents are less likely to have emotional difficulties and to engage in problem behaviors

Characterize developmental changes in identity that occur during adolescence (read p. 276) (identity formation) (4 statuses) (crisis and commitment)

Identity formation neither begins nor ends during adolescence. It begins with the appearance of attachment, the development of the sense of self, and the emergence of independence in infancy; the process reaches its final phase with w/ a life review and integration in old age. (p. 276) Importance of identity development in adolescence: for the 1st time, physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development advance to the point at which the individual can begin to sort through and synthesize childhood identities and identifications to construct a viable path toward adult maturity. -Marcia's 4 statuses of identity or ways of resolving the identity crisis. Marcia classifies individuals based on the existence or extent of their crisis or commitment. *Crisis* is a period of identity development during which the individual is exploring alternatives (most ppl use term exploration instead of crisis). *Commitment* is personal investment in an identity. 1) *Identity diffusion*: the status of individuals who haven't yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments. They are undecided about occupational/ ideological choices and they also likely show little interest in such matters. 2) *Identity foreclosure*: individuals have made a commitment but have not yet experienced a crisis...often occurs when parents hand down commitments to adolescents in an authoritarian way, before adolescents have had a chance to explore different approaches/ ideologies/ vocations on their own 3) *Identity moratorium*: individuals who are in midst of a crisis but whose commitments are either absent or only vaguely defined 4) *Identity achievement*: individuals who have undergone crisis and have made a commitment -Key changes in identity are more likely to take place in emerging adulthood, the period from about 18-25 years of age. A large portion of individuals are not identity achieved by the time they reached their twenties. Resolution of identity issue in adolescence/ emerging adulthood does not mean the identity will be stable through the remainder of life. Many go through "MAMA" cycles.

Discuss the leading causes of death in adolescence

Leading causes of death in adolescence: • Unintentional injuries: teens take risks for rewards (majority of deaths from unintentional injuries in ages 15-24 years old are from motor vehicle accidents) • Homicide (especially among African American male adolescents) • Suicide: difficulties w/ anxiety and depression are likely w/ this transition (adolescent suicide rate has tripled from the 1950s)

Describe substance abuse during adolescence and the role of parents/ peers.

Substance use and abuse: (p. 262) U.S. has one of the highest rates of *adolescent drug use*. Marijuana is most widely used drug in the U.S. *Early onset of drinking* = increased risk of heavy drinking in middle age. Onset of alcohol use before age 11 = higher risk for alcohol dependence in early adulthood. (p. 263) *Parental monitoring* linked w/ a lower incidence of problem behavior by adolescents, including substance abuse. *Authoritative parenting* linked to lower adolescent alcohol consumption, while parent-adolescent conflict was related to a higher level of adolescent use. (p. 263) *Spending more evenings out with peers*, having friends who get drunk, feeling pressure to drink, and perceived availability of alcohol were linked to heavy episodic drinking. Early educational achievement reduced the likelihood that adolescents would develop drug problems, including alcohol abuse, smoking, and abuse of various illicit drugs. • United States has one of the highest rates of adolescent drug use of any industrialized nation • Adolescent alcohol and cigarette consumption has declined in recent years • The roles of development, parents, peers and education -drugs more exciting because there is so much more dopamine released in teenage brain

Highlight changes in brain functioning, discuss structures that are more active, and explain the process of pruning during adolescence.

These 3 are still developing: -*Prefrontal cortex*: the "judgment" region reins in intense emotions but doesn't finish developing until at least emerging adulthood. Involved in reasoning, decision making, self-control (planning, exec function, time management) doesn't finish maturing until the emerging adult years 18-25 or later -*Corpus callosum*: band of nerve fibers between hemispheres is still strengthening and connecting. It is thickening and this improves their ability to process information...teen may make decisions they haven't thought through yet. -*Amygdala*: seat of emotions such as anger...matures earlier than prefrontal cortex Teens behave/speak before processing (p. 254) By the end of adolescence individuals have fewer, more selective, more effective neuronal connections than they did as children. This pruning indicates that the activities adolescents choose to engage in and not engage in influence which neural connections will be strengthened and which will disappear. (p. 255) Although adolescents are capable of very strong emotions, their prefrontal cortex hasn't adequately developed to the point at which they can control these passions.

Discuss timing and variations in puberty, body image, and early/late maturation in adolescence

Timing and variations in puberty • Average age of menarche has declined significantly since mid-19th century • Improved nutrition and health has allowed systems to come online earlier (earlier menstration) • *Pubertal sequence begins*: • Boys - 10-13 1/2 years...starts later, but it's a more truncated experience • Girls - Between ages of 9 and 15 years ...can involve many years of slow changes • *Body image*: Adolescents with most positive body images engaged in health-enhancing behaviors (regular exercise) • Preoccupation with body image is strong throughout adolescence • Girls are less happy with their bodies and have more negative body images (because of cultural norms) (probably from influence of media) -Both boys and girls body images became more positive as they moved from beginning to the end of adolescence • Early and late maturation • In Berkley Longitudinal Study: *Early-maturing boys* view themselves more positively and have more successful peer relations...getting bulkier and taller • *Late-maturing boys* report a stronger sense of identity in their 30s...have to distinguish themselves in different ways than just physicality -However, during adolescence it is advantageous to be an early-maturing rather than late-maturing boy • *Early-maturing girls* show greater satisfaction early but less satisfaction later • More likely to smoke, drink, be depressed, Have an eating disorder, struggle for earlier independence, have older friends...earlier dating/ sexual experiences...less likely to graduate from high school & they cohabit and marry earlier

Briefly describe adolescent sexuality

• *Developing a sexual identity involves learning to manage sexual feelings, developing new forms of intimacy, learning skills to regulate sexual behavior* (p. 255) An adolescent's sexual identity involves activities, interests, styles of behavior, and an indication of sexual orientation. • Risk factors in adolescent sexual behavior: *Early sexual activity is linked to drug use, delinquency, and school-related problems* (accessibility of internet and porn: body image, sexualized behaviors, drug use, school/academic problems, being used for the industry) -*A study revealed that alcohol use, early menarche, and poor parent-child communication were linked to early sexually intimate behavior in girls* (p. 256) Associating with more deviant peers in early adolescence was related to having more sexual partners at age 16. A study of middle school students revealed that better academic achievement was a protective factor in keeping boys and girls from engaging in early initiation of sexual intercourse. (p.257) STI's (sexually transmitted infections) are contracted primarily through sexual contact, including oral-genital and anal-genital contact. Every year over 3 million adolescents acquire an STI. In a single act of unprotected sex w/infected partner, a teenage girl has 1% risk of getting HIV, 30% risk of getting general herpes, 50% of getting gonorrhea *Adolescent pregnancy* • U.S. has 1 of the highest rates in the world • Creates health risks for baby and mother (p. 257) Ethnic variations characterize adolescent pregnancy. Latina adolescents are more likely than African American and non-Latina White adolescents to become pregnant. Daughters of teenage mothers are at risk for teenage childbearing, perpetuating an intergenerational cycle *Outcomes of adolescent pregnancy* • Infants with low birth weight, neurological problems, childhood illness • Mothers drop out of school and never catch up economically (p. 258) Adolescent mothers are more likely to come from low-SES backgrounds.

Discuss Piaget's formal operational stage (read again in text before test) p. 265

• *Formal operational stage*...(ugh I'm losing my focus, I need to focus) • More abstract than concrete operational thought -adolescents can conjure up make-believe situations, abstract propositions, and events that are purely hypothetical and can try to reason logically about them • Increased verbal problem-solving ability • Increased tendency to think about thought itself • Thoughts of idealism and possibilities...they often fantasize about the future and things they desire in themselves and others...leads to comparing themselves to others • More logical thought ...logic puzzles on LSAT • *Hypothetical-deductive reasoning*: Creating a hypothesis and deducing its implications, which provides ways to test the hypothesis....formal operational thinkers develop hypotheses about ways to solve problems and then systematically deduce the best path to follow to solve the problem. (does rain make me happy?...well I don't go to school on those days...oh its not the rain that makes me happy, it's the fact that I don't go to school)

Discuss the development of identity according to Erikson

• *Identity versus identity confusion* (p. 276) Adolescents faced with deciding who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. • *Psychosocial moratorium*-Gap between childhood security and adult autonomy. (p. 276) During this time, society leaves adolescents relatively free of responsibilities and able to try out different identities • Adolescents experiment with different roles and personalities • Adolescents who cope with conflicting identities emerge with a new sense of self

Describe the purpose of friendships during adolescence (check text p. 281)

• Friendships are important in shaping the development of children and adolescents...(p. 281) *Everyone has basic social needs, such as the need for tenderness (secure attachment), playful companionships, social acceptance, intimacy, and sexual relations* -Sullivan says the *need for intimacy* intensifies during early adolescence, motivating teenagers to seek out close friends. If adolescents fail to forge such close friendships, they experience loneliness and a reduced sense of self-worth. -(p. 282) *Adolescents depend more on friends* than on parents to satisfy their need for companionship, reassurance of worth, and intimacy. Adolescent girls more likely to disclose information about problems to a friend than are adolescent boys. -*Positive friendships* in adolescence are associated with lower rates of delinquency, substance abuse, risky sexual behavior, bullying, victimization, and higher levels of academic achievement. • Most teens prefer a smaller number of friendships that are more intense and more intimate • Friends become increasingly important in meeting social needs • Young adolescents conform more to peer standards than children do (peer pressure)

Describe parent-adolescent conflict and issues for parents of teenagers (check text p. 280) (old and new models of parent-adolescent relationships)

• Parent-adolescent conflict increases in early adolescence -(p. 280) Much of the conflict involves everyday events of family life, such as keeping a bedroom clean, dressing neatly, getting home by a certain time, and not talking endlessly on the phone. • Remains somewhat stable during the high school years • Lessens as the adolescent reaches 17 to 20 years of age Everyday conflicts serve a positive developmental function...(p. 280) Recognizing that conflict and negotiation can serve a positive developmental function can tone down parental hostility. • *Old model of parent-adolescent relationships* suggested that: as adolescents mature they detach themselves from parents and move into a world of autonomy apart from parents. It also suggested that parent-adolescent conflict is intense and stressful throughout adolescence • *New model* emphasizes that: Parents serve as important attachment figures and support systems while adolescents explore a wider, more complex social world. It also emphasizes that parent-adolescent conflict is moderate rather than severe, and that everyday negotiations and minor disputes are normal and serve the positive developmental function of helping the adolescent make the transition from childhood dependency to adult independence.

Discuss the incidence and the causal factors of suicide

• Suicide is the 3rd leading cause of death in 10- to 19-year-olds • More adolescents contemplate or attempt it unsuccessfully than actually commit it • Females are more likely to attempt suicide, but males are more likely to succeed...males use more lethal methods (guns) and females are more likely to cut their wrists or take an overdose of sleeping pills • Suicidal adolescents often have depressive symptoms...alcohol use while sad/ depressed at risk for attempting suicide • Strongest link between adolescent suicide attempt and drug use was any lifetime use of tranquilizers or sedative • Lower risk: family support, peer support, and community connectedness • Other risks: sexual victimization and victims of bullying