Chinese History Final

Ban Zhao

(45-ca. 114 CE) --from a prominent family of scholars and officials; highly educated woman; --finished the History of the Han Dynasty (Han shu 漢書) begun by her father and brother; --tutor to women in the Han imperial household, including one future empress; --wrote many other works; was "poet laureate" at imperial court --Admonitions for My Daughters/for Women

the traditional Chinese world order

Chinese world view: Chinese culture and civilization superior to any other Foreigners should adopt Chinese way of life, Chinese culture, etc. Being civilized = being "sinifed" (being Chinese-ified") The "cooked" and the "raw" (the more Chinese, the more "cooked") Which foreign people would be "cooked"? Vietnamese, Koreans Which would be "raw"? Mongoliens "Culturalism" rather than nationalism or ethnic centrism (or racism)

Xiongnu

Earliest mention in Chinese records from 5th c. BCE Who were the Xiongnu? Very obscure origins: possibly name refers to a group of different nomadic peoples (different ethnicities, different languages) Most likely not related to the Huns in western history Began invading into CHina in the 5th c. BCE Became militarily powerful under effective leaders around the late 3rd c. BCE; challenged the Qin and Han dynasties in China Han rulers' methods of dealing with the Xiongnu Xiongnu tribes split into two groups... Role in China, 3rd to ca. 5th c. CE Many settled inside Great Wall, adopted semi-nomadic or sedentary (farming) lifestyle Served in the military in northern China What happened to the Xiongnu? Assimilated into other groups, both nomadic and sedentary

Endogamy

Endogamy is the practice of marrying within a specific social group, caste or ethnic group, rejecting those from others as unsuitable for marriage or other close personal relationships.

Degrees (or grades) of mourning

Five Confucian relationships: --parent-child --older brother-younger brother --husband-wife --ruler-minister --friend-friend --conflict between an individual's loyalty and ties to one's family and lineage and to other social (and religious) units --Confucius's argument for loyalty first to one's family (Analects) --conflict between loyalty to one's family and to the community (or to the state)? --conflict between loyalty to one's family and one's religion (e.g., renouncing the family and the world to become a Buddhist monk/nun)? --conflict between members within a family or a lineage? Funeral rites, mourning, and burials --Who should mourn for whom? (see diagram) How? (see next slide) --Who conducts funeral and mourning rites? Burial --how many times? (see pictures) --where? geomantic (fengshui) considerations (more later) important times of the year for paying respect to one's ancestors: 1. Pure and Bright Festival (Qingming or Ch'ing-ming )—around April 5 2. Double Nine (9th day of the 9th lunar month); a.k.a. Double Yang Festival (Chongyang jie or Ch'ung-yang chieh) 3. 1st day of the 10th lunar month—esp. in north China, when the dead are presented with winter clothing (made of colored paper) 4. Ghost Festival (Gui jie) or Yulan pen or Ullambana or Avalambana 15th day of the 7th lunar month (primarily for hungry ghosts, but can also make offerings to one's ancestors)

Footbinding in China

Foot binding was the custom of applying tight binding to the feet of young girls to modify the shape of their feet. It was practiced in China from the Song dynasty until the early 20th century, and bound feet were considered a status symbol as well as a mark of beauty. Foot binding limited the mobility of women, and resulted in lifelong disabilities for most of its subjects, although some women with bound feet working outdoors have also been reported. Feet altered by binding were called lotus feet. There had been attempts to end the practice during the Qing dynasty; Manchu Kangxi Emperor tried to ban foot binding in 1664 but failed. In the later part of the 19th century, Chinese reformers challenged the practice but it was not until the early 20th century that foot binding began to die out as a result of anti-foot-binding campaigns. The practice however was encouraged by the Mongol rulers on their Chinese subjects. The practice became increasingly common among the gentry families, later spreading to the general population, as commoners and theatre actors alike adopted footbinding. By the Ming period, the practice was no longer the preserve of the gentry, but it was considered a status symbol. As foot binding restricted female movement, one side effect of its rising popularity is the corresponding decline of the art of dance in China in women, and it became increasingly rare to hear about beauties and courtesans who were also great dancers after the Song era. Bound feet became a mark of beauty and was also a prerequisite for finding a husband. It also became an avenue for poorer women to marry into money in some areas;

Kana

Heian Period (794-1185) Continued development of Buddhism, including Japanese schools of Buddhism based on Chinese ones Development of kana, syllabaries for writing Japanese (through Chinese still considered more prestigious) Political system very different from China.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-98)

Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea (1592-98): --Hideyoshi's motives --first invasion in 1592: over 150,000 Japanese troops land in Busan in southern Korea --Korean king flees from his capital (modern Seoul) and goes to north, right on the Chinese border --asks for Chinese military support for Korea (on what basis does he ask for this aid?) --negotiations in 1593-95 --second invasion in 1597-98 --both invasions repelled, but impact on the three countries involved?

han'gul

It is the official writing system of South Korea and North Korea. the Korean alphabet. It has been used to write the Korean language since its creation in the 15th century by Sejong the Great. The alphabet consists of 14 consonants and 10 vowels. Hangul letters are grouped into syllabic blocks, vertically and horizontally.

Lineage

Lineage (sometimes "clan") A group of men with the same surname, related to each other by blood and claiming the same "firsts ancestor(s)" Chinese lineages are patrilineal More on lineages later Agnates: the men belonging to the same lineages Women don't count agnate/ agnatic vs. affine/ affinal Affines: relative through marriage (e.g.. Relatives from a mother's or sister's family) Difference between a family and a lineage? Patriarchal (men have authority and power), patrilineal (trace lineage through father's side) Matriarchal, matrilineal Primogeniture in ancient China generally meant: Principal son of a family inherited the position as the head of family Principal son inherited more family property than other sons in ancient China. BUT after ancient times in China, this custom was not generally observed, and equipartition of property (distribution among sons) was more likely. Nevertheless, the principal son continued to be the head othe the household (and lineage) for his generation Difference between oldest son and principal son? Family: keeping generations district Development of corporate lineage Corporate lineage property (cemetery, land such as charitable estates, clan/lineage temples) Corporate lineage activities (compilation of genealogy, lineage feasts, ancestral sacrifices, scenes, etc.) Reasons for corporate lineages? Local power and influence As counterbalance to state power Lineage rivalry Single-surname villages Did such a corporate lineage include only individuals who were biologically related?

Biographies of Exemplary Women

Liu Xiang (79-6 BCE): Biographies of Exemplary Women (Lienü zhuan ) --first known collection: many others in later periods --also: dynastic histories included a section with biographies of admirable women, including Mencius's mother

wokou pirates

Mid 16th c.: peak of the wokou pirates; sereve attacks all along china's east and southeast coast Causes: trade ban by Ming Chinese government vs. need for trade revenues of regional Japanese warlords (piracy was a common problem to China, Japan, Korea) (main Chinese government stopped ban on maritime trade which stopped problem) Trade ban lifted in 1567 Export of silver to China Increasing trade between China, Japan, Ryukyu Islands, and other parts of East Asia.

Hideyoshi Toyotomi

Mid 16th c.: peak of the wokou pirates; sereve attacks all along china's east and southeast coast Causes: trade ban by Ming Chinese government vs. need for trade revenues of regional Japanese warlords (piracy was a common problem to China, Japan, Korea) (main Chinese government stopped ban on maritime trade which stopped problem) Trade ban lifted in 1567 Export of silver to China Increasing trade between China, Japan, Ryukyu Islands, and other parts of East Asia. Unification of Japan (1573) under three leaders, including Hideyoshi Toyotomi (1537-98) Hideyoshi Toyotomi's invasions of Korea (1592-98_: Hideyoshi's motives First invasion in 1592: over 150,000 Japanese troops land in Busan in southern Korea. Korean kind flees from his capital (modern Seoul) and goes to north, right on the Chinese border Asks for Chinese military support for Korea (on what basis does he ask for this aid?) Negotiations in 1593-95 Second invasion in 1597-98 Both invasions repelled, but impact on the three countries involved?

the "raw" the "cooked"

The "cooked" and the "raw" (the more Chinese, the more "cooked") Which foreign people would be "cooked"? Vietnamese, Koreans Which would be "raw"? Mongoliens Foreigners should adopt Chinese way of life, Chinese culture, etc.

Legalism

The state of Qin had the most ambitious and militarily successful rulers, who were attracted to ideas by advisers who advocated policies and practices to build a strong state. Such an approach to governing is referred to as Legalism. Legalist ministers argued that instead of parceling land out to wealthy and powerful members of the nobility in return for loyalty and military service to the ruler (feudalism), the latter should directly control more of the land and other resources, and employ civil and military officials loyal to him and dependent on him for their positions.

Qin dynasty

The state of Qin had the most ambitious and militarily successful rulers, who were attracted to ideas by advisers who advocated policies and practices to build a strong state. Such an approach to governing is referred to as Legalism. Legalist ministers argued that instead of parceling land out to wealthy and powerful members of the nobility in return for loyalty and military service to the ruler (feudalism), the latter should directly control more of the land and other resources, and employ civil and military officials loyal to him and dependent on him for their positions. Furthermore, a strong state required a large population from which the ruler could draft enough men for a large army and laborers for state construction projects. This in turn meant enough resources to support the population—arable land for farming, water, timber, minerals, etc. Through a variety of ways, the Qin state managed to support the largest population of any of the states within the Zhou kingdom. By 316 BCE, the Qin state had also conquered large territories to the west (in modern Sichuan province), which possessed an abundance of natural resources—fertile land, forests with plenty of timber, minerals in the hills and mountains, etc.—that enriched the Qin. Around 249 BCE, the Qin conquered part of the state of Chu to its southeast. By 230 BCE, the Qin had about one-third the cultivated land and one-third of total population of all the states in the Zhou kingdom. The Qin rulers also controlled the production, distribution and sale of essential commodities, such as iron (for tools and weapons) and salt by making them government monopolies—a practice used by later dynasties as well when they needed more revenues than they could extract by taxes such as the grain (land) tax, head tax, tax on textiles, etc.

Hydraulic Despotism

These terms refer to a civilization based mainly on an agricultural system dependent on large-scale waterworks (rivers, lakes, canals, etc.) that are most effectively managed by the state. "despotism" does not mean a cruel and arbitrary system of ruling, but merely that the state exercised absolute power over the country's population. Wittfogel said that in any society that depends on well-managed waterworks for irrigation, transport, etc., this kind of infrastructure is most efficiently managed centrally by a state. Management of these water resources by private individuals or groups, or local communities or local governments does not allow the most effective use of such resources, because these groups do not command the sufficient financial or human resources, or the political power and authority. The rulers and officials of that centralized state would hold a monopoly on political power and great control over the country's economy, resulting in an absolutist managerial state, holding power that no other institution in the country has. To maintain the waterworks, the state has a complex bureaucracy that manages the labor needed. One feature of Wittfogel's model that does not fit China has to do with the Chinese state's dominance over religion. It turns out that we can say that from about the 1st c. BCE onward, there was a state ideology that owed much to Confucian ideas—e.g., the ruler (the emperor) was the Son of Heaven, and he (all emperors except one were men) and his dynasty received the authority to rule from Heaven (the Mandate of Heaven). This mandate could be taken away if the ruler failed in his responsibilities—to care for the welfare of his people. And the emperor (and the officials representing him at lower levels of government) performed sacrifices to Heaven, Earth, and the sages like Confucius. But the people's own religious beliefs and practices could actually be quite different from this state ideology. In addition to Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism, there was also a wide range of religious beliefs and practices collectively referred to as popular religion. And in society, an individual could choose to believe in, to engage in practices of any of these. In fact, if the state discovered that there was deity that was very popular among the people, it may appropriate this deity—turning a previously unofficial god or goddess into one recognized by the state. Nevertheless, some of what Wittfogel says does apply to imperial China. For instance, recall our examination of the Yellow River. One of the most important responsibilities of the Chinese state in any period is to control the Yellow River from flooding, by building and maintaining dikes, by dredging segments of the river, etc. The Chinese imperial state had the authority and power to marshall the financial and human resources needed to perform these tasks--by extricating taxes from the people, by drafting the labor necessary, by employing officials, including technical experts such as civil engineers, water experts, etc. On the other hand, if the 6 river did overflow its banks, or broke through the dikes, then great disaster may ensue— hundreds or thousands of square miles of land could be flooded, destroying the land's uses and causing widespread economic and social distress and causing the people to flee the stricken areas--problems that may last for far longer than just a few months or a year, and eventually can lead to social and political disorder, serious enough to topple the state. All this conforms to Wittfogel's model of a "hydraulic despotism."

Genealogies for Chinese families and Lineages

Who compiled them? Members of the lineage, usually the ones in charge or more powerful What is in the genealogies? Who was listed in the genealogies? Black sheep were left out Not as detailed on women Genealogies reflecting power dynamics within the lineage Lineage property Lineage cemeteries Charitable estates (income to support poorer members of the lineage - e.g, educational expenses) Businesses (shops, companies, etc.) Ceremonies honoring ancestors In ancestral hall; family shrines

Uighur Empire

Who were/are Turks? Are there still Turks today? Where did they originally come from? How far did they migrate? About 9 Turkic tribes: sent three mebassies to Tang Chinese court at Chang'an to obtain recognition for the few Uighur empire Troublesome allies of Tang imperial court during the An Lushan Rebellion (755-63) e.g. plundering of Luoyang in 757 and 762 Invasion of northern China in 765 Silk and horse trade; tea and horse trade 779-839: 49 tribute missions to Chang'an, including 18 horse-trading missions 791: battle of Beiting: Uighurs defeated by Tibetans End of Uighur Empire: 839-840: defeat by Kirghiz tribes Original religion of Turkic nomads: "Tendgrism"; sacred Otukan Mts. in central Mongolia Religions adopted by the Uighurs: Buddhism Manichaeism - conversion of Uighur khagan in 763 Nestorian Christianity Islam

Tribute system as practiced by China in its relations with other countries

Within China Emperor expected goods from all parts of the country to be presented to him at the capitol (tribute goods - the best a region has to offer, such as very special teas, the best silks, lichees from the south of China, special wines, etc.) Applied to foreign countries China as the "center" and the Chinese emperor as the Son of Heaven who rules over "all under heaven" Foreign rulers should acknowledge the superiority of China and its ruler, and send embassies (tribute missions) to show their respect, The envoys in these tribute missions would: Bring gifts (special products from their countries, valuable goods, etc.) Respectful greetings from the rulers (maybe send the tribute mission to congratulate a new Chinese emperor on the throne, on his birthday, etc.) Investiture ceremony for a new ruler in a foreign country. What do the envoys get in return? housing, food, gifts from Chinese court Great hospitality while on a tribute mission in China What did the foreign ruler get in return? Recognition of his authority as ruler of his country Often had Chinese style titles conferred on him Control of the tribute trade from his country Possibly military support against political enemies, against invasion by another country, etc. Did the tribute system always work? Did foreign rulers always acknowledge the superiority of China? Why do this? Perks When did foreign rulers do this? Whenever it was advantageous When not? When they were powerful enough Official tribute trade vs non-official private trade Why would the Chinese state sometimes not allow non official private trade? Pirates or whatever Myths and Realities of the Tribute System Use of tribute system by other countries in Asia

Empress (or Emperor) Wu

a Chinese sovereign who ruled unofficially as empress consort and empress dowager and later, officially as empress regnant (皇帝) during the brief Zhou dynasty (周, 684-705),[3] which interrupted the Tang dynasty (618-690 & 705-907). Wu was the sole officially recognized empress regnant of China in more than two millennia. Wu was the concubine of Emperor Taizong. After his death, she married his successor—his ninth son, Emperor Gaozong, although having considerable political power prior to this. After Gaozong's debilitating stroke in 660, Wu Zetian became administrator of the court, a position equal to the emperor's until 705. The importance to history of Wu Zetian's period of political and military leadership includes the major expansion of the Chinese empire, extending it far beyond its previous territorial limits, deep into Central Asia, and engaging in a series of wars on the Korean Peninsula, first allying with Silla against Goguryeo, and then against Silla over the occupation of former Goguryeo territory. Within China, besides the more direct consequences of her struggle to gain and maintain supreme power, Wu's leadership resulted in important effects regarding social class in Chinese society and in relation to state support for Taoism, Buddhism, education, and literature.

Concubine

a man may marry one principal wife and several secondary wives (translated as "concubines") --polygyny: a husband with more than one wife principal wife: same socioeconomic background as the husband --has power and authority over the secondary wives -- secondary wife (concubine): often of lower socioeconomic status than the husband differences between wife and concubine: --social status --how "married" --authority and rights within husband's family and lineage --reasons for concubinage?

Xylography

a relief printing technique in printmaking. An artist carves an image into the surface of a block of wood—typically with gouges—leaving the printing parts level with the surface while removing the non-printing parts. Areas that the artist cuts away carry no ink, while characters or images at surface level carry the ink to produce the print. The block is cut along the wood grain (unlike wood engraving, where the block is cut in the end-grain). The surface is covered with ink by rolling over the surface with an ink-covered roller (brayer), leaving ink upon the flat surface but not in the non-printing areas. Multiple colors can be printed by keying the paper to a frame around the woodblocks (using a different block for each color). The art of carving the woodcut can be called "xylography", but this is rarely used in English for images alone, although that and "xylographic" are used in connection with block books, which are small books containing text and images in the same block. They became popular in Europe during the latter half of the 15th century. A single-leaf woodcut is a woodcut presented as a single image or print, as opposed to a book illustration. originated in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later on paper. The earliest woodblock printed fragments to survive are from China, from the Han dynasty (before 220), and are of silk printed with flowers in three colours.[3] "In the 13th century the Chinese technique of blockprinting was transmitted to Europe."[4] Paper arrived in Europe, also from China via al-Andalus, slightly later, and was being manufactured in Italy by the end of the thirteenth century, and in Burgundy and Germany by the end of the fourteenth.

Khaghan

a title of imperial rank in the Turkic and Mongolian languages equal to the status of emperor and someone who rules a khaganate (empire).[2] The female equivalent is Khatun. It may also be translated as Khan of Khans, equivalent to King of Kings.

the "Needham questions"

efers to the guiding question behind Joseph Needham's (b. 1900-d. 1995) massive Science and Civilisation in China, as well as his many other publications. As he phrased it, "the essential problem [is] why modern science had not developed in Chinese civilization (or Indian) but only in Europe." He went on to consider another quite different question, equally important, and centered his historical research on it: "why, between the first century BC and the fifteenth century AD, Chinese civilization was much more efficient than occidental in applying human natural knowledge to practical human needs". To seek answers, he compiled what Europeans had learned over three hundred years about science, medicine, and technology in China. Substantial original investigations by Needham and his several collaborators, of whom the best known were Lu Gwei-djen (Guizhen), Wang Ling, and Ho Peng Yoke (Bingyu), expanded and added depth to the picture, and Needham's interpretations of the results gave it coherence. In the mid 15th century China seemed to believe it had all the science it needed - everything of use was adequately explained by the theories of five elements, yin-yang and the Yi Jing (I Ching). When the Jesuits arrived at Beijing in 1601, they saw an enlightened, prosperous country that they judged to be superior to Europe in almost every way. The only area where Europeans seemed to have the upper hand was mathematics and derived from that astronomy. When MacCartney visited China in 1794 with gifts that failed to impress, the European perception was that little had changed in China at the macro level since Marco Polo's visit (1275-92). So by 1920 Westerners were able to make the claim with some justification that China had 'no science' and it was true that China did not have the grounding in pure science that was so crucial to Western technological development.

Exogamy

exogamous: husband and wife should be from different groups (e.g., individual cannot marry a relative from his/her father's side of the family, cannot marry someone with the same surname, etc.)

Fuxi and Nuwa

is a culture hero in Chinese legend and mythology, credited (along with his sister Nuwa) with creating humanity and the invention of hunting, fishing and cooking as well as the Cangjie system of writing Chinese characters c. 2,000 BCE. He was also known as Paoxi (t 庖犧, s 庖牺), also romanized as Pao-hsi. Fuxi was counted as the first of the Three Sovereigns at the beginning of the Chinese dynastic period. Fuxi was an ancient Chinese god who was said to show the ancient Chinese people how to domesticate animals. Pangu then died after standing up, and his body turned into rivers, mountains, plants, animals, and everything else in the world, among which is a powerful being known as Hua Hsu. Hua Hsu gave birth to a twin brother and sister, Fuxi and Nüwa. Fuxi and Nüwa are said to be creatures that have faces of human and bodies of snakes. Fuxi was known as the "original human" (although technically speaking he was not a human), and he was said to have been born in the lower-middle reaches of the Yellow River in a place called Chengji (possibly modern Lantian, Shaanxi province, or Tianshui, Gansu province).[1] In reality, many Chinese people believe[citation needed] that Hua Hsu was a leader during the matriarchal society (ca. 2,600 BC) as early Chinese developed language skill while Fuxi and Nüwa were leaders in the early patriarchal society (ca. 2,600 BCE) while Chinese began the marriage rituals.

uxorial marriage

man lives with wife's family (why?) --women --after marriage, their primary links to husband's family --obliged to mourn their parents- in-law in the first degree of mourning (more important than mourning their own parents)

Polyandry

more than one husband

Polygyny

polygyny: a husband with more than one wife advantages / disadvantages of polygyny --for husband? --for principal wife? --for concubine?

Affine

relatives through marriage (e.g., relatives from a mother's or sister's family) Families and lineages as a very viable social and economic unit: and as the subunits or building blocks of a larger society. The rich people would have a bigger family because they had the money to support them Lineage (sometimes "clan") A group of men with the same surname, related to each other by blood and claiming the same "firsts ancestor(s)" Chinese lineages are patrilineal

Confucian Ideas of Women in Premodern China

roles of a married woman (in increasing order of authority): --new daughter-in-law --wife without children (esp. sons) --mother --grandmother --older and younger women within a household: dynamics of relationships Did a wife have the right to divorce a husband? --Yes, BUT. . .Where would she go? Would her natal family welcome her back? Would her husband and his family want to give up any dowry the wife brought?, etc. In premodern China, Confucian women should be subordinate to the men in their families like their father and husband (Chia Lecture). When a girl married into a man's family, his family became hers because she belonged to the groom's family. It was essential for the girl to get along with all of the man's family, such as his siblings and their spouses. In relation to the parents-in-law, the girl had to obey them and learn to please them in every way possible. Her biggest goal would be to have a baby, especially a son. b. Girls that grew up in elite families would learn how to read and write so that the could learn the Confucian books and texts. They would learn the Mencius, the Analects, Lessons for Women, and more It was often thought that learning the Confucian texts would help them become "virtuous Confucian women" (Gardner, 2). Also, women that were literate in the family would bring up the family's status because that would mean that they had resources and investment in the education of their children and family. It made for good motivation for men to marry into one of these families that were literate and understood the Confucian ideals. It would mean that once married into the family, these literate women could teach their sons Confucian texts. In families that were not elite, girls would still receive an education that mostly consisted of doing chores in the house like cooking, cleaning, sewing, and more (Gardner, 2). c. Ban's arguments that a woman should be submissive and humble to the men and senior women in the family because it is what is the norm in their society at the time. Any other behavior or argument would bring disgrace and dishonor to the family. This is the only way that women can have a somewhat good life (Ban Zhao). d. Although women were not allowed to serve as civil officials and their responsibilities were technically limited to the household, they exercised power from being in proximity to a powerful male (Gardner, 1). Women have access as mothers and wives to high officials like ministers and magistrate and therefore are able to wield some power over and through them.

Principal Wife

same socioeconomic background as the husband --has power and authority over the secondary wives -- secondary wife (concubine): often of lower socioeconomic status than the husband

Orkhon Valley

sprawls along the banks of the Orkhon River in Central Mongolia, some 320 km west from the capital Ulaanbaatar. the Orkhon Valley was viewed as the seat of the imperial power of the steppes. Mountains were considered sacred in Tengriism as an axis mundi, but Ötüken was especially sacred because the ancestor spirits of the khagans and beys resided here. Moreover, a force called qut was believed to emanate from this mountain, granting the khagan the divine right to rule the Turkic tribes.[1] Whoever controlled this valley was considered heavenly appointed leader of the Turks and could rally the tribes. Thus control of the Orkhon Valley was of the utmost strategic importance for every Turkic state. Historically every Turkic capital (Ördü) was located here for this exact reason.

typography

the art and technique of arranging type to make written language legible, readable, and appealing when displayed. The arrangement of type involves selecting typefaces, point sizes, line lengths, line-spacing (leading), and letter-spacing (tracking), and adjusting the space between pairs of letters (kerning[1]). The term typography is also applied to the style, arrangement, and appearance of the letters, numbers, and symbols created by the process. Typography with movable type was invented during the eleventh-century Song dynasty in China by Bi Sheng (990-1051).[19] His movable type system was manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay type printing continued to be practiced in China until the Qing Dynasty. Wang Zhen was one of the pioneers of wooden movable type. Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical rigors of handling, repeated printing wore the character faces down and the types could be replaced only by carving new pieces.[20] Metal movable type was first invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, approximately 1230. Hua Sui introduced bronze type printing to China in 1490 AD. The diffusion of both movable-type systems was limited and the technology did not spread beyond East and Central Asia, however.

Agnate

the men belonging to the same lineage (women do not count) agnate/ agnatic vs. affine/ affinal Affines: relative through marriage (e.g.. Relatives from a mother's or sister's family) Difference between a family and a lineage?

Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan)

was the founder and first Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death. He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia. After founding the Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he launched the Mongol invasions that conquered most of Eurasia. These campaigns were often accompanied by large-scale massacres of the civilian populations. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China. Beyond his military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the Mongol Empire in other ways. He decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also practiced meritocracy and encouraged religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire, and unified the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia.