CHP 6: Police Officers and Law Enforcement Operations

What are the three parts of the patrol function?

(1) Answering calls for assistance, (2) maintaining a police presence, and (3) probing suspicious circumstances.

What are the four steps of the apprehension process?

(1) Detection of crime, (2) preliminary investigation, (3) follow-up investigation, and (4) clearance and arrest.

The dispatcher may

(1)send a sworn officer to the scene right away, (2)give the call a lower rank so that the response by an officer is delayed, (3)send someone other than a sworn officer, or (4)refer the caller to another agency.

concluded that the changes in patrol strategies had had no major effects on

(1)the amount of crime reported, (2)the amount of crime as measured by citizen surveys, or (3)citizens' fear of crime Neither a decrease nor an increase in patrol activity had any apparent effect on crime. many departments increased their emphasis on maintaining order and serving the public rather than thinking of themselves as primarily engaged in crime control.

Recruitment

1) All agencies require recruits to pass physical fitness tests, and they check to see if applicants have criminal records 2)require recruits to undergo psychological evaluations, because each officer will ultimately make important discretionary decisions, including those that may determine life and death in stressful situationsxy 3)Federal agencies and others that provide good compensation and benefits tend to attract larger numbers of applicants 4)Most local departments require only a high school diploma, but they actually may seek to recruit people with at least some college education. 5)In the largest cities, with populations greater than 500,000, about one-third of departments require at least some college education and a small percentage require either a two-year or a four-year degree 6)Some departments will accept years of military service as a replacement for an equal number of years of college education.

In the past, patrols were organized by "beats."

1) It was assumed that crime can happen anywhere, and the entire beat must be patrolled at all times 2)crime is not spread evenly over all times and places 3)One of the most frequent citizen requests is for officers to be put back on the beat. -This was the main form of police patrol until the 1930s

One-Person versus Two-Person Patrol Units

1) Patrolling is costly, and two one-officer units can cover twice as much territory and respond to twice as many calls as can a single two-officer unit. 2) Officers and their union leaders support the two-person squad car. 3) claim that police are safer and more effective when two officers work together in dangerous or difficult situations. 4)police administrators contend that the one-person squad car is much more cost-effective and permits them to deploy more cars on each shift. 5)With more cars to deploy, each can be assigned to a smaller area and response time can be decreased. 6)also contend that an officer working alone is more alert and attentive because he or she cannot be distracted by idle conversation with a colleague. 7)it may be difficult to maintain the expense of two-person patrol cars.

Police administrators make decisions about how to deploy their personnel

1) They must determine where their officers will patrol, when and how often officers will move down specific streets and sidewalks, and what officers will do at particular locations.

In many cities, the amount of serious crime has gone down during the past decade

1) but the percentage of unsolved cases has remained relatively stable. 2)In part this may be due to the lack of resources allocated to pursuing "cold cases." 3)" Detectives emphasize that although forensic tools are important, solving crimes "the old fashioned way" through much street work is still effective.

proactive

1) can be benefits 2)(initiating actions in the absence of citizen requests) 3)Acting in anticipation, such as an active search for potential offenders that is initiated by the police without waiting for a crime to be reported. Arrests for victimless crimes are usually proactive. 4) can have positive impacts on crime and disorder 5)strategies such as surveillance and undercover work to combat some crimes. 6) the police are not responding to the call of a crime victim; rather, they seek out crimes

Oakland, California's resource investment of adding dozens of problem-solving officers

1) found no statistical evidence that the program was associated with reductions in crime and violence 2)other positive effects that were not the focus of the study because police using this approach do not just fight crime; they address a broad array of problems that affect the quality of life in the community.

Police training programs range

1) from two-week sessions that stress the handling of weapons, to academic four-month programs followed by fieldwork 2)Recruits hear lectures on social relations, learn foreign-language phrases, and study emergency medical treatment. 3)need formal training in order to gain an understanding of legal rules, weapons use, and other aspects of the job. 4)job also demands social skills that cannot be learned from a lecture or a book. 5) programs begin the process of giving recruits the outlook, values, and orientation of police officers 6)also changes as law enforcement executives identify new issues and problems that confront officers. 7)much of the most important training of police officers takes place during a probationary period when new officers work with and learn from experienced officers. 8), "Now, I want you to forget all that stuff you learned at the academy. You really learn your job on the streets."

"hot times,"

1) generally between 7:00 P.M. and 3:00 A.M 2)The Minneapolis study found that 51.9 percent of crime calls to the police came during this period, whereas the fewest calls were made between 3:00 A.M. and 11:00 A.M 3)With this knowledge, the department increased patrol presence in hot spots and at hot times 4). Being a "presence" in a hot spot might deter criminals, but the officers grew bored

Preventive Patrol

1) has long been thought to help deter crime. 2)In the Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment, a 15-beat area was divided into three sections, each with similar crime rates, population characteristics, income levels, and numbers of calls to the police 3) In one area, labeled "reactive," all preventive patrol was withdrawn, and the police entered only in response to citizens' calls for service. 4)"proactive," preventive patrol was raised to as much as 4 times the normal level; all other services were provided at the same levels as before. 5)The third section was used as a control, with the usual level of services, including preventive patrol, maintained. Kansas experiment "remains the most influential test of the general deterrent effects of patrol on crime" Kansas study showed -Crime rates do not seem to be affected by changes in patrolling strategies, such as assigning more officers.

many citizens and some researchers claim that patrol officers in squad cars

1) have become isolated from the people they protect and less aware of their needs and problems. 2)Because officers rarely leave the patrol car, they cannot easily anticipate and mediate disputes, investigate suspected criminal activities or otherwise visibly demonstrate to neighborhood residents that the police care about their well-being. 3)When officers are distant from the people they serve, citizens may be less inclined to call for help or provide information

Aggressive patrol

1) is a proactive strategy designed to maximize police activity in the community. 2) It takes many forms, such as "sting" operations, firearms confiscation, raids on crack houses, programs that encourage citizens to list their valuables, and the tracking of high-risk parolees. 3)The zero-tolerance policing in New York City is an example 4)reduce crime, they may also lead to citizen hostility 5)some neighborhoods complain that aggressive patrol has gone too far and is straining police relations with young African Americans and Hispanics.

The Police Subculture

1) is made up of the symbols, beliefs, values, and attitudes shared by members of a subgroup within the larger society. 2) of the police helps define the "cop's world" and each officer's role in it. 3)police develop shared values that affect their view of human behavior and their role in society. 4) Specific aspects of this subculture can vary by police department so, in effect, the organizational context, values, and practices of an agency can affect individual officers' attitudes 5) recruit learns the norms and values of the police subculture through a process of socialization 6)This begins at the training academy but really takes hold on the job through the new recruit's interactions with experienced officers 7) characteristics of a subculture are not static: They change as new members join the group and as the surrounding environment changes. 8)the composition of the police has changed dramatically during the past 30 years in terms of race, gender, and education. 9)can vary by individual officer as well as by the values and practices of an individual officer's agency context

Critical information errors can affect

1) jails, prisons, and other segments of the justice system. 2) important to record information accurately, maintain and update records properly, and communicate complete and accurate information to relevant officials.

Foot versus Motorized Patrol

1) motorized patrol came to be viewed as more effective. 2) Foot patrol and bicycle patrol are used in the majority of cities larger than 10,000 residents, including approximately 90 percent or more of cities with 50,000 or more inhabitants 3)departments typically use these patrol strategies in selected neighborhoods or districts with a high business or population density. 4) Most patrolling is still conducted in cars. Squad cars increase the amount of territory that officers can patrol 5) With advances in communication technologies and onboard computers, patrol officers have direct links to headquarters and to criminal information databases. 6)citizens' demands for a familiar figure walking through the neighborhood, the past three decades have seen a revived interest in foot patrol 7)Studies have shown that although foot patrols are costly and do not necessarily reduce crime, they reduce people's fear of crime 8) In terms of the cost and benefit, foot patrols are effective in high-density urban neighborhoods and business districts

Quantifying police work is difficult in part because

1) of the wide range of duties and day-to-day tasks of officers 2)the crime rate and the clearance rate have been used as measures of "good" policing. 3) A lower crime rate might be cited as evidence of an effective department, but critics note that other factors besides policing affect this measure.

In urban areas, because they tend to be the first police to arrive at the scene of a crime,

1) patrol officers must do much of the initial investigative work. 2) the patrol unit's investigation can be crucial 3)Successful prosecution of many kinds of cases, including robbery, larceny, and burglary, is closely linked to the speed with which a suspect is arrested. 4) If patrol officers cannot obtain information from victims and witnesses right away, the chance of arresting and prosecuting the suspect greatly decreases.

Cleveland, Ohio,

1) police officer who shot a 12-year-old boy holding a toy gun in 2014 had been discharged earlier, from a suburban police agency, for emotional reactions that cast doubt on his decision-making abilities. 2) the Cleveland police hired him without looking at his complete personnel file from the prior agency 3)also raised issues about miscommunication among police officials

In 1997, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

1) set aside the 311 number for cities to use, if they choose, as a nonemergency number. 2)Baltimore was the first city to implement the new number, and it soon experienced a 42 percent reduction in 911 calls, as many nonemergency calls were placed to 311 instead. 3)later set aside the 211 number for social services information and the 511 number for traffic information, but relatively few cities have yet implemented call centers to make use of those other numbers

"place-based policing,"

1) such as focusing on hot spots, can prevent crime and also reduce arrests and costs of processing cases 2)According to David Weisburd, "If place-based policing were to become the central focus of police crime prevention, rather than arrest and apprehension of offenders, we would likely see at the same time a reduction in prison populations and an increase in crime prevention effectiveness of the police."

direct-contact predatory crimes,

1) such as muggings and robberies, occur when three elements converge: motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of anyone who could prevent the violation. 2)means that resources should center on "hot spots," places where crimes are likely to occur

Police Isolation

1) suspicion of and isolation from the public may increase when they believe that the public is hostile to them 2) feel that people regard them with suspicion, in part because they have the authority to use force to gain compliance 3) Public opinion polls have found that a majority of people have a high opinion of the police. 4)various groups of people have different opinions regarding police officers' ethical standards 5) young people in high-crime neighborhoods may develop negative attitudes based on their own experiences in being watched and questioned by the police 6)the percentage of nonwhites who rated police officers' honesty and ethical standards as "high" or "very high" dropped 20 points to 23 percent in 2014 but then rebounded to 40 percent by the end of 2015 7) isolation from the public is made worse by the fact that many officers interact with the public mainly in moments of conflict, emotion, and crisis. 8)Even something as minor as telling someone to turn down the volume on a stereo can turn the police into the "bad guys" in the eyes of people who believe that the officers' authority limits citizens' entitlement to personal freedom. -Ironically, these problems may be at their worst in poor neighborhoods where effective policing is needed most. 9)they may believe that the public is hostile toward them and that the nature of their work makes the situation worse, the officers can separate themselves from the public and form strong in-group ties. 10)are recognized by people who want to "talk shop"; others harangue them about what is wrong with police service. These incidents can also contribute to isolation. 11) isolation from society may decrease their understanding of other people. 12)may also strengthen their belief that the public is ungrateful and hostile.

Three issues are key to understanding the police subculture:

1) the concept of the "working personality," 2) the isolation of the police, 3) and the stressful nature of much police work. -The police subculture produces a working personality

women officers encounter resistance when they assert their authority

1) they must often endure sexist remarks and more-troubling forms of sexual harassment.

Officers may be able to use body language

1) to influence the behavior of people who are behaving emotionally and irrationally; this can be done by consciously self-monitoring the way that officers stand and how they position their hands while they speak calmly and listen to the individual to try to understand why the person is acting in a certain manner. 2)In Seattle, Albuquerque, Cleveland, and other cities investigated by the U.S. Department of Justice for incidents of excessive use of force, new training methods have been introduced to emphasize de-escalation techniques.

Professionals, businesspeople, and others sometimes respond

1) to the officer not as a person working for the benefit of the community but as a public servant whom they do not respect. 2)Poor people may also challenge officers' authority when, for example, they are angry about a situation or believe officers are targeting them unfairly. 3)present themselves in the best light to the public when they perform their jobs in ways that demonstrate a commitment to fair treatment for everyone

hotspots

1) where crimes or related issues of disorder repeatedly occur. 2)reductions in crime can take place when patrols focus their attention on known hot spots within a community. 3) By spending 15 minutes at a hot spot, patrol officers may create deterrent effects that lead potential lawbreakers to avoid the area or to be careful about their unlawful behavior. 4)spending a longer time in hot spots may enable officers to identify and plan remediation for certain vulnerabilities to crime that exist for businesses and residences in such areas. 5) Extended presence in the vicinity of hot spots also gives officers the opportunity to interact with residents to learn their concerns about crime and safety, and to speak to individuals whose behavior troubles other residents in the neighborhood. 6)increased activity in areas adjacent to the hot spots targeted by police was likely attributable to citizens in those areas increasing their willingness to call the police when they knew that police were nearby and eager to address community problems.

murder of a University of Wisconsin student in 2008

1) who dialed 911 from her cell phone, apparently when confronted by an intruder in her apartment, yet the operator did not know her precise location or the nature of the emergency

reactive

1)(responding to citizen calls for service) 2)Acting in response, such as police activity in response to notification that a crime has been committed. 3) 81 percent of actions result from citizen telephone calls, 5 percent from citizens who approach an officer, and only 14 percent from officers in the field. 4)b/c mainly reactive the police usually arrive at the scene only after the crime has been committed and the perpetrator has fled. 5)hampered by the time lapse and sometimes by inaccurate information given by witnesses. 6) all preventive patrol was withdrawn, and the police entered only in response to citizens' calls for service.

directed patrol

1)A proactive form of patrolling that directs resources to known high-crime areas. 1a)A proactive patrol strategy designed to direct resources to known high-crime areas. 2)a proactive strategy designed to direct resources to known high-crime areas. 3) directed patrol activities focused on suspicious activities and locations can reduce violent gun crime 4)risk, however, that the extra police pressure may simply cause lawbreakers to move to another neighborhood. 5)Police administrators know that the amount of crime varies by season and time 6) Rates of predatory crimes such as robbery and rape increase in the summer months, when people are outdoors. 7)domestic violence occurs more frequently in winter, when intimates spend more time indoors in close proximity to one another

Investigation (detectives)

1)All cities with a population of more than 250,000, and 90 percent of smaller cities, have officers called detectives assigned to investigative duties 2) Detectives make up 15 percent of police personnel. 3)they have a higher status in the department. Their pay is higher, their hours are more flexible, and they are supervised less closely 4) Detectives do not wear uniforms, and their work is considered more interesting 5)(detectives) engage solely in law enforcement rather than in order maintenance or service work; hence, their activities conform more closely to the image of the police as crime fighters. 6) Local police detectives are typically reactive, responding to crimes that have been discovered or reported. 7)Detectives in small departments are generalists who investigate whatever crimes occur, but in large departments they are assigned to special units such as homicide, robbery, auto theft, forgery, and burglary 8) criminal investigation is largely reactive, Detectives become involved after a crime has been reported and a patrol officer has done a preliminary investigation. 9)The job of detectives is mainly to talk to people—victims, suspects, witnesses—in order to find out what happened 10)detectives develop theories about who committed the crime and then set out to gather the evidence that will lead to arrest and prosecution. 11)In performing an investigation, detectives depend not only on their own experience but also on technical experts 12)Much of the information they need comes from criminal files, lab technicians, and forensic scientists - Detectives are often pictured as working alone, but in fact they are part of a team. 13)Although detectives focus on serious crimes, they are not the only ones who investigate crimes. Patrol, traffic, vice, and juvenile units may also do so.

As Spelman and Brown (1984) point out, three decision-making delays slow the process of calling the police:

1)Ambiguity delays Some people are not sure whether the police should be called, because the situation seems ambiguous. They might see an event but not know whether it is a robbery or two young men "horsing around." 2)Coping delays Other people are so busy coping—taking care of the victim or directing traffic—that they cannot leave the scene to call the police. 3)Conflict delays Still other people must first resolve conflicts before they call the police. For example, they may call someone else for advice about whether to call the police. -Although delay is a major problem, reducing delay would only slightly increase arrest rates. -In about three-quarters of crime calls, the police are reactive, in that the crimes (burglary, larceny, and the like) are discovered long after they have occurred. -A much smaller portion are "involvement" crimes (robbery, rape, assault) that victims know about right away and for which they can call the police promptly

Forensic Techniques

1)American police have long relied on science in gathering, identifying, and analyzing evidence. 2)Through the CSI: Crime Scene Investigation television drama and its spin-offs, the public has become increasingly aware of the wide range of scientific testing techniques used for law enforcement purposes. Scientific analysis of fingerprints, blood, semen, hair, textiles, soil, weapons, and other materials has helped the police identify criminals. 3) It has also helped prosecutors convince jurors of the guilt of defendants. 4)Beginning in the 1990s, these techniques have also increasingly helped defense attorneys establish the innocence of people who are in prison for such crimes as rape and murder

Minority Police Officers

1)Before the 1970s, many police departments did not hire nonwhites. 2)minority officers now constitute 40 percent of the officers in the nation's largest cities represents a dramatic change in staff composition over the past two decades. 3) African Americans composed 12 percent of officers in local police departments 4) Latino officers constituted more than 11 percent of officers and Asian, Pacific Islander, Native American, and multiracial officers were an additional 3 percent of local police forces nationally. 5)For cities with populations in excess of 1 million residents, nearly 25 percent of officers were Latino and 17 percent were African American 6)some police departments are showing greater interest in recruiting bilingual Latino officers 7)in 2011 the Charlotte, North Carolina, police department sent a team of recruiters to Puerto Rico in an attempt to recruit bilingual officers 8)local people complain that the police should recruit bilingual people locally as well as train officers to speak Spanish or other needed languages to provide service to the newcomers within the Latino community and other ethnic-group members who may not be fluent in English

In the discussions about the use of body cameras, lists of benefits and drawbacks are regularly presented. Among the benefits are:

1)Cameras can provide evidence of police errors and wrongdoing in conducting searches and using force on people. 2)The presence of the camera will force officers to be very conscious of following proper rules of police procedure and thereby reduce the risks of mistakes and misbehavior by police. 3)Visible cameras may also make some citizens more self-conscious and careful about their own behavior and statements in interacting with officers. 4) The cameras can help protect police officers against false claims of improper searches and excessive use of force. 5)The cameras will provide a basis for supervisors to review officers' actions in order to identify errors, hold officers accountable, and identify needs for additional policies and training. The city of Rialto, California, experienced an 89 percent drop in complaints against officers during the first year of using the cameras.

. Especially with regard to patrol duty, questions like the following often come up:

1)Can women handle situations that involve force and violence? 2)What changes must be made in training and equipment in order to accommodate women? 3)Should women and men have equal opportunities for promotion? 4)Does assigning men and women as patrol partners tend to create tension with their spouses? -women must work hard to overcome resistance from their fellow officers and citizens in the community.

incident-driven policing

1)Citizens have come to expect that the police will respond quickly to every call, whether it requires immediate attention or can be handled in a more routine manner. 2)A reactive approach to policing emphasizing a quick response to calls for service. 3)less than 30 percent of calls to the police involve criminal law enforcement—most calls concern order maintenance and service 4)The approach to policing that emphasizes a quick response to calls for service

what other factors determine who is hired by specific law enforcement agencies?

1)Compensation is one factor that influences which people apply for law enforcement jobs. -Some people who might have been outstanding local police officers decline to apply because they seek jobs that have higher salaries. 2)high salaries often exist in areas with a high cost of living 3)Because of limited budgets, rural sheriff's departments, by contrast, may have a more difficult time recruiting a large applicant pool. 4)educational level of potential recruits

3 steps to apprehension

1)Detection of a crime Although patrol officers sometimes discover crimes, information that a crime has been committed usually comes in a call to the police. For example, automatic alarms linked to police headquarters could alert the police to a crime on business premises. Such direct communications help shorten response time and increase the chances of catching the suspect. 2)Preliminary investigation The first law enforcement official on the scene is usually a patrol officer who has been dispatched by radio. The officer helps the victim, secures the crime scene for investigation, and documents the facts of the crime. If a suspect is present or nearby, the officer conducts a "hot" search and may apprehend the suspect. This initial work is crucial. The officer must gather the basic facts, including the name of the victim, a description of the suspect, and the names of witnesses. After the information is collected, it is sent to the investigation unit. 3)Follow-up investigation After a crime has been brought to the attention of the police and a preliminary investigation has been made, the detective decides what course of action to pursue. In big-city departments, incident reports from each day are analyzed the next morning. Investigators receive assignments based on their specialties. They study the information, weigh each factor, and decide whether the crime can likely be solved 4)Clearance and arrest The decision to arrest is a key part of the apprehension process. In some cases, further evidence or links between suspects and others are not discovered if arrests are made too soon. A crime is considered cleared when the evidence supports the arrest of a suspect. If a suspect admits having committed other unsolved crimes, those crimes are also cleared. However, when a crime is cleared in police files, the suspect will not necessarily be found guilty in court -If the detectives decide there is little chance of solving the crime quickly, the case may be dropped.

The drawbacks often discussed include:

1)Equipping entire police departments with individual cameras is expensive and not necessarily the best use of scarce resources during a time of budget shortfalls. 2)The limited field in the camera's view may not record a complete and accurate picture of the circumstances facing an officer at the moment when decisions are made to use force or conduct searches. Something that an officer sees but is not in the direct line of vision of the camera may be the basis for a statement or action, yet the video does not adequately portray everything that the officer observed. In addition, even events clearly recorded by the camera may be subject to interpretation in second-guessing officers' decisions and actions. 3)Camera breakdowns or limited camera views may lead to assumptions that police have intentionally failed to use the equipment properly, and then any dispute about events will weigh against the officer, even when the officer is telling the truth about what happened. 4)A significant increase in the number of cameras used by a police department, in addition to the already-in-use patrol car cameras, will lead to enormous expenditures of time and money when reviewing footage in order to respond to requests for evidence or public information. Many cities are finding that they face costs of hundreds of thousands of dollars in computer storage costs and the paid time of technicians and officers in downloading and reviewing video footage. 5)The costs of such programs are affected by whether departments require officers to run the cameras continuously while on duty or turn on the cameras during encounters with citizens. The latter policy may save video storage costs, but also creates risks that officers will neglect to turn on the cameras, either intentionally or unintentionally. 6)There are risks to officers' privacy if they forget to turn the cameras off, as the device will be running when they are on bathroom breaks and when they engage in private phone conversations with their own family members.

four kinds of stress to which officers are subjected, and the factors that cause each

1)External stress This is produced by real threats and dangers, such as the need to enter a dark and unfamiliar building, to respond to "man with a gun" alarms, and to chase lawbreakers at high speeds. 2)Organizational stress This is produced by the nature of work in a paramilitary structure: constant adjustment to changing schedules, irregular work hours, and detailed rules and procedures. 3)Personal stress This can be caused by an officer's racial or gender status among peers, which can create problems in getting along with other officers and adjusting to group values that differ from one's own. Social isolation and perceptions of bias also contribute to personal stress. 4)Operational stress This reflects the total effect of dealing with thieves, derelicts, and those with mental illness; being lied to so often that all citizens become suspect; being required to face danger to protect a public that seems hostile; and always knowing that one may be held legally liable for one's actions. -Some departments now have stress-prevention, group-counseling, liability insurance, and family-involvement programs.

The detective's role is important in at least two ways besides solving crimes

1)First, the status of detective provides a goal to which patrol officers can aspire and thereby gives them an incentive to excel in their work. 2)Second, the public expects the police to conduct investigations. 3) Citizens may have more trust in the police or feel more willing to cooperate with them when they see investigations being conducted, even if those investigations do not always lead to arrests.

The Changing Profile of the Police

1)For most of the nation's history, almost all police officers were white men. 2)Today, women and minorities represent a growing percentage of officers within police departments in many areas 3) In 1968, the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders found that tense relationships between the police and minority group residents in inner-city neighborhoods contributed to the ghetto riots of the 1960s. 4)Until the 1970s, many police departments rarely hired African Americans, Latinos, and other minority group members; women were also largely excluded in the hiring process.

Delivery of Police Services

1)In service bureaucracies like the police, a distinction is often made between line and staff functions 2)staff functions supplement or support the line functions. 3)staff functions are based in the chief's office and the support or services bureau, as well as in the staff inspection bureau 4)An efficient department maintains an appropriate balance between line and staff duties.

Assignment of Patrol Personnel

1)In the past it has been assumed that patrol officers should be assigned where and when they will be most effective in preventing crime, keeping order, and serving the public. 2)"Where should the officers be sent, when, and in what numbers?" 3)and most assignments seem to be based on the notion that patrols should be concentrated in "problem" neighborhoods or in areas where crime rates and calls for service are high. 4)the assignment of officers to particular patrol areas is based on factors such as crime statistics, 911 calls, degree of urbanization, pressure from business and community groups, and socioeconomic conditions. 5)Patrol officers are assigned to shifts and to geographic areas 6) Demands on the police differ according to the time of day, day of the week, and even season of the year. 7)Most serious crimes occur during the evening hours, and the fewest occur in the early morning

"broken windows" theory

1)Influential theory about increases in fear and crime within neighborhoods when there is insufficient police attention to seemingly minor public order offenses such as vandalism, loitering, aggressive panhandling, and prostitution. 2)"that if not firmly suppressed, disorderly behavior in public will frighten citizens and attract predatory criminals, thus leading to more serious crime problems" 3). Thus, the police should focus on minor, public order crimes such as aggressive panhandling, graffiti, prostitution, and urinating in public. 4)This approach is presumed to reduce citizens' fear of crime as well as crime itself, although there are questions about its actual effectiveness for either purpose

Drug Law Enforcement

1)Many large cities have a bureau to enforce drug laws. 2)Many city police departments also participate in multiagency task forces focused on drugs 3)Only 49 percent of all police departments participate in multiagency drug task forces, but this includes more than 80 percent of all agencies in cities with populations over 50,000 4) such task forces are primarily tools used by larger cities, especially the nation's largest cities, as more than 96 percent of cities with populations greater than 250,000 participate 5)These agencies may also be linked to task forces that deal with organized crime or with gangs involved in drug dealing. 6)They may use sting operations to arrest drug sellers on the street. -may also develop programs to provide drug education in the community. 7)sometimes reflects the goal of aggressive patrol, or assigning resources so as to get the largest number of arrests and stop street dealing. 8) Police executives believe that they must show dealers and the community that drug laws are enforced 9)Special drug units are common within police departments, especially in large cities.

Rapid Response Time

1)Most departments are organized so that calls for help come to a central section that dispatches the nearest officers by radio to the site of the incident. 2)With most citizens carrying cell phones, calls reporting suspicious activity and crimes are quicker and more numerous than in past eras. 3)measured the impact of police response time on the ability of officers to intercept a crime in progress and arrest the criminal 4)Rapid response time helps in only a small fraction of all calls. 5)the costs of police resources and the danger created by high-speed response may outweigh any increase in effectiveness due to faster response times 6)What types of delays reduce response time? -Decision-making delays caused by ambiguity, coping activities, and conflicts.

The police use various strategies to attack drug dealing

1)One of these involves inspections of houses and buildings used by drug dealers. - Those that do not meet city standards can be boarded up in order to rid the neighborhood of dealers. Streets where drugs are dealt openly can be flooded with officers who engage in proactive stops and questioning. 2)another strategy is to disrupt the drug market. -flooding an area with officers and closing off abandoned buildings, the police can shut down drug sales in a specific location. -arrests for drug sales or possession have increased dramatically, 3)public officials argue that drugs should be viewed as a public-health problem rather than as a crime problem. 4) Critics of enforcement policies believe that society would benefit if more resources went to drug treatment programs than to police actions that fill prisons and jails without doing much to reduce drug use. 5)Police officers now respond to thecontemporary opioid abuse crisis by treating overdoses and referring people to drug treatment. 6)The legalization of marijuana in some places also alters the drug-enforcement role of police

Special Operations

1)Patrol and investigation are the two largest and most important units in a police department. 2) In metropolitan areas, however, special units are set up to deal with specific types of problems. 3)The most common such units concern traffic, vice, and juveniles.

Patrol Functions

1)Patrol is often called the backbone of police operations. 2) the familiar sight of a uniformed and armed patrol officer, on call 24 hours a day, is what they would call "policing." 3)Every local police department has a patrol unit. 4)Even in large departments, patrol officers account for up to two-thirds of all sworn officers

Issues in Patrolling

1)Patrol officers are the frontline personnel who bear the primary responsibility for all of the major functions of policing, including law enforcement, order maintenance, and service. 2)The effectiveness of patrol officers relies in part on the strategies that police administrators use to distribute personnel throughout a city or county and to instruct officers about practices and priorities. 3) For each specific problem that arises, police agencies instruct their officers to perform in ways tailored to each problem; different problems require different modes of operation. 4)New York City precincts sought to reduce crime by sending "waves of rookies, teamed with seasoned officers, into high-crime areas" - By contrast, departments that can focus on long-term trends in crime control or service instead of an immediate crisis may be able to establish specific patterns of patrol that emphasize having officers walk within neighborhoods and build personal relationships with individual citizens.

What type of training do police recruits need?

1)Preservice training, usually in a police academy. 2)Police officers receive formal training in classroom settings but much of their most important training occurs during the first months of patrol

The Future of Patrol

1)Preventive patrol and rapid response to calls for help have been the hallmarks of policing in the United States for the past half-century 2)The rise of community policing has shifted law enforcement toward problems that affect the quality of life of residents. 3)Police forces need to use patrol tactics that fit the needs of the neighborhood. 4)Neighborhoods with crime hot spots may require different strategies than do neighborhoods where residents are concerned mainly with order maintenance.

SARA strategy for problem solving (Thurman, Zhao, and Giacomazzi, 2001: 206). SARA stands for a four-step process:

1)Scanning the social environment to identify problems 2)Analysis of the problem by collecting information 3)Response to the problem by developing and employing remedies 4)Assessment of the remedies to evaluate the extent to which the problem has been solved -Regardless of whether the police focus their resources on order maintenance, law enforcement, or service, they tend to respond to specific incidents

Job Stress

1)Stemming from the elements of danger and authority, this stress can affect not only the way officers treat the citizens they encounter but also the officer's own health 2)Stress can also affect how officers interact with one another 3)work environment, work-family conflict, and individual coping mechanisms are the most significant predictors of stress for individual officers 4)face grave danger and yet feel unappreciated by a public they perceive to be hostile. 5) physical and mental health suffers 6)compounded by the long hours many officers work, including double shifts that deprive them of sleep and make them work under conditions of severe fatigue

Apprehension

1)The discovery that a crime has been committed sets off a chain of events leading to the capture of a suspect and the gathering of the evidence needed to convict that person. 2)may also lead to several dead ends, such as a lack of clues pointing to a suspect or a lack of evidence to link the suspect to the crime. 3) Response time is key to apprehension, as is the information given by the victim or witnesses. 4)Apprehension of a felony suspect starts with _____ -detection of the crime

federal Police Corps program

1)The idea that college-educated officers would be better decision makers and make more-effective officers helped to spur the creation of 2)a college education makes little difference for police performance, other scholars concluded that it is associated with fewer officer problems relating to the improper use of force and citizens' complaints 3)that a higher education improves report writing and other aspects of officer performance. 4) education alone does not determine performance; departmental training, supervision, and other factors also shape it.

Organizational Response

1)The organization of the police bureaucracy influences how the police respond to citizens' calls. 2)Factors that affect the response process include the separation of police into various functional groups (patrol, vice, investigation, and so on), the quasi-military command system, and the techniques used to induce patrol officers to respond in desired ways. 3) The core of the department is the communications center, where commands are given to send officers into action. 4)Patrol officers are expected to remain in constant touch with headquarters and must report each of their actions. 5)Two-way radios, cell phones, and computers are the primary means by which administrators monitor the decisions of officers in the field. 6)headquarters is better able to track officers' activities throughout the day. 7) Communication does not, however, eliminate individual officers' ability to make discretionary decisions about which individuals to stop, which to search, and which to arrest. 8)The availability of communications and information technology varies, depending on departmental resources

Training

1)The performance of the police is not based solely on the types of people recruited; it is also shaped by their training 2)The FBI and DEA train their new agents at their training academies on a Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia. 3)Depending on the agency in which they will serve, new federal law enforcement officers attend training at one of the Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers (FLETC), with the primary facility located in Glynco, Georgia. -In this model, college graduates are hired based on characteristics and qualifications and enrolled in a training program run by their employing agency. 4)An alternative approach requires candidates for law enforcement positions to pay their own way through a police academy program, often held at a community college or university. 5)The state of New York uses a variation of this approach, in which people can enroll at their own expense in the Pre-Employment Police Basic Training Course offered at specific community colleges that work closely with nearby police agencies -the New York approach grants academic college credit for those who successfully complete the program. -This preliminary education is referred to as providing "pre-credentialing" for potential law enforcement officers and thereby eases the recruitment and training burdens on individual police agencies. -If hired, they must complete the second segment of basic training that is run by their employing agency

Authority

1)The second aspect of the working personality is the need to exert authority. 2)Although the police uniform, badge, gun, and nightstick are symbols of position and power, the officer's demeanor and behavior are what determine whether people will defer to him or her. 3) If they try too hard to exert authority in the face of hostile reactions, officers may cross the line and use excessive force. 4)Even when citizens challenge the conduct of police and their right to enforce the law, they expect the police to react in a detached or neutral manner. 5) in the daily work of policing, the rules and procedures taught at the academy may affect officers' actions less than does the need to preserve and exert authority in the face of potential danger.

subculture

1)The symbols, beliefs, and values shared by members of a subgroup of the larger society. 2)includes learning the informal rather than the rule-book ways of law enforcement. - New officers must learn how to look "productive," how to take shortcuts in filling out forms, how to keep themselves safe in dangerous situations, how to analyze conflicts so as to maintain order, as well as absorb a host of other bits of wisdom, norms, and folklore that define the subculture of a particular department. -Recruits learn that loyalty to other officers, esprit de corps, and respect for police authority are highly valued.

Domain Awareness System.

1)The system incorporates information (Microsoft) from public surveillance cameras, license-plate readers at the city's entry bridges and tunnels, radiation detection devices around the city, and other information, such as emergency calls within New York City. 2) The system proved very useful in solving several highly publicized crimes 3) It relies on crime data that are incomplete and not totally accurate 4)some software programs may include other kinds of information, such as Facebook profiles of known associates of prior arrestees, that may bring people and their neighborhoods under suspicion even if they have not committed any crimes themselves. 5)Another issue emerging from the use of the software concerns impacts on contemporary problems of police-community relations 6) Critics contend that the software enhances the risks that officers will treat neighborhood people with suspicion and aggressively question and search people without a proper legal basis.

minority percentage of officers

1)Three-quarters of Detroit's population is now African American, as is about 63 percent of the city's police officers. 2)In El Paso and San Antonio, Texas, which have large Hispanic populations, 72 percent and 42 percent of those police departments are Hispanic, respectively 3)The extent to which the police reflect the racial composition of a city is believed to affect police-community relations and thus the quality of law enforcement. 4)the presence of an African American police chief can reduce the rise in distrust of police that can follow a controversial police shooting

Productivity

1)Through twice-weekly briefings before their peers and senior executives, precinct commanders must explain the results of their efforts to reduce crime. 2)In the CompStat approach, they are held responsible for the success of crime control efforts in their precincts as indicated by crime statistics 3)timely, accurate information. 4)Computer systems have been developed to put up-to-date crime data into the hands of police managers 5)This allows discussion of department-wide strategies and puts pressure on low producers 6)comp stat-has led to major reductions in a wide range of crimes comp stat-aised questions as to how police work should be measured. -It has also raised questions about whether measures of performance based on data tend to move departments away from community policing by emphasizing a centralized hierarchy focused on accountability and control - issues about whether it creates incentives for precinct-level police to avoid reporting crime data accurately 7)are sometimes supplemented by other data, such as the number of traffic citations issued, illegally parked cars ticketed, and suspects stopped for questioning, as well as the value of stolen goods recovered by officers. different measures of productivity Clearance rate—the percentage of crimes known to the police that they believe they have solved through an arrest—is the traditional productivity measure, now supplemented by such measurable activities as traffic tickets and stop-and-frisk searches.

differential response

1)To improve efficiency, police departments use 2)This system assumes that it is not always necessary to rush a patrol car to the scene when a call is received. 3)A patrol strategy that assigns priorities to calls for service and then determines the appropriate response depending on the importance or urgency of the call. 4)clearly saves police resources For example, with trained officers answering 911 lines, (1)more-detailed information is gathered from callers, (2)callers have a better sense of when to expect a response, and (3)patrol officers have more information about the case when they respond. -Policy that prioritizes calls according to whether an immediate or delayed response is warranted.

Traffic

1)Traffic regulation is a major job of the police 2) police regulate the flow of vehicles, investigate accidents, and enforce traffic laws. 3) This work may not seem to have much to do with crime fighting or order maintenance, but in fact it does 4)enforcement of traffic laws educates the public by promoting safe driving habits and provides a visible service to the community. 5) can also help the police catch criminals 6) Stolen property and suspects linked to other criminal acts are often found this way. Most departments can now automatically check license numbers against lists of wanted vehicles and suspects. 7) An officer's specific decision in any situation may depend on a number of factors including department policies, the attitude of the driver, and the amount of time involved in processing paperwork for a citation or arrest. 8)mostly proactive, and the level of enforcement depends in part on departmental policies. 9)officers target certain kinds of violations or certain highways 10) Some departments expect officers to issue a prescribed number of citations during each shift. 11)Although these norms may be informal, they offer a way of gauging the productivity of traffic officer

In his classic work, Herman Goldstein (1977: 55) outlines the process of investigation as follows:

1)When a serious crime occurs and the suspect is identified and caught right away, the detective prepares the case to be presented to the prosecuting attorney. 2)When the suspect is identified but not caught, the detective tries to locate him or her. 3)When the offender is not identified but there is more than one suspect, the detective conducts investigations to determine which one committed the crime. 4)When there is no suspect, the detective starts from scratch to find out who committed the crime.

Women on the Force

1)Women have been police officers since 1905, when Lola Baldwin became an officer in Portland, Oregon. 2) Prior to that time, many cities had "police matrons" to assist in handling women and children in jails, but they did not have the power to arrest or engage in investigative and patrol activities 3) the number of women officers remained small for most of the twentieth century because of the belief that policing was "men's work." 4) Court decisions opened up police work for women by prohibiting job assignments by gender; changing minimum height, weight, and physical fitness requirements; and insisting that departments develop job classification and promotion criteria that were nondiscriminatory 5)female officers rose from 1.5 percent of local police officers in 1970 to nearly 12 percent 6) the larger the department, the higher the proportion of women who are sworn officers. 7)In cities of more than 1 million inhabitants, nearly 18 percent of officers are women, but women make up less than 8 percent of officers, on average, in cities with fewer than 10,000 residents 8) most women officers have easily met the expectations of their superiors

working personality

1)a set of emotional and behavioral characteristics developed by members of an occupational group in response to the work situation and environmental influences. 2)A set of emotional and behavioral characteristics developed by a member of an occupational group in response to the work situation and environmental influences. 3)Two elements of police work define this working personality: -the threat of danger and -the need to establish and maintain one's authority 4)The second aspect of the working personality is the need to exert authority. 5) working personality and occupational environment are closely linked and constantly affect the daily work of the police 6) Procedural rules and the structure of policing come second to the need to exert authority in the face of potential danger in many contexts in which citizens are angry, disrespectful, or uncooperative.

problem-oriented policing

1)a strategy that seeks to find out what is causing citizen calls for help 2)An approach to policing in which officers routinely seek to identify, analyze, and respond to the circumstances underlying the incidents that prompt citizens to call the police. 3)The police seek to identify, analyze, and respond to the conditions underlying the events that prompt people to call the police 4) Knowing those conditions, officers can enlist community agencies and residents to help resolve them 5)problem-solving approaches can impact homicide rates

From the time they obtain badges and guns, they must

1)always carry these symbols of the position—the tools of the trade—and be prepared to use them. 2)obligation to remain vigilant, even when off duty, and to work at odd hours, reinforces the values shared with other officers. 3)Strengthening this bond is officers' tendency to socialize mainly with their families and other officers; indeed, they may have little social contact with people other than police officers. 4)their contacts with citizens can reinforce their perceptions that members of the public view them narrowly as police officers and not as neighbors, friends, and fellow community members.

Line functions

1)are those that directly involve field operations such as patrol, investigation, traffic control, vice, juvenile crimes, and so on 2)Police components that directly perform field operations and carry out the basic functions of patrol, investigation, traffic, vice, juvenile, and so on.

Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972

1)barred state and local governments from discriminating in their hiring practices 2) most city police forces have mounted campaigns to recruit more minority and female officers 3) Since the 1970s, the percentage of minority group members and women has doubled 4)27 percent of local police officers nationwide belong to minority groups. 5) The percentage is even larger in police departments in cities with populations greater than 500,000 6)Today about 1 in 8 local officers is female and 1 in 4 belongs to a racial or ethnic minority. 7)Issues about the lack of diversity in police departments remain, especially in smaller cities. 8)Although the United States has a long history of racial and gender discrimination, such actions clash with the Constitution's equal protection clause.

Because policing is such an important occupation, society would

1)benefit from recruiting its most thoughtful, athletic, and dedicated citizens as police officers 2)motivations include awareness that their jobs will require them to make contributions toward improving police-community relations and improving the public's perceptions of police

stop-and-frisk searches 2013

1)concerning allegations that police officers improperly performed hundreds of thousands-- and that they engaged in racial discrimination in targeting young African American and Hispanic men. 2). The judge ordered a one-year pilot program for a limited number of precincts spread throughout the city in which officers would wear individual body cameras that would record their interactions with citizens. 3)In Rialto, California, a city that pioneered the use of such cameras in 2012, the $900 cameras are small enough to attach to officers' sunglasses or collars 4) President Obama asked Congress to allocate $75 million in federal funds to help communities throughout the country obtain 50,000 more body cameras for police. 5)see this technology as beneficial to both police officers and citizens 6) the cameras can provide evidence if police officers violate citizens' rights 7) fear that the cameras may fail to fulfill expectations and create risks of new problems.

Police officials in Santa Cruz, California

1)contacted researchers who had developed software to predict earthquakes and asked them to develop prediction software to anticipate when and where crimes such as burglary, bicycle thefts, and assaults were likely to take place. 2)The city saw nearly a 20 percent reduction in burglaries over the course of a year even as a decrease in police personnel occurred due to budget cuts

In 2013, police officials in Tempe, Arizona

1)credited information analysis and data sharing for significant decreases in crime. 2)New software helps officers to analyze crime trends and to immediately update records databases. 3)information on reported crimes, suspects, and other aspects of investigations can be accessed immediately by officers in the field 4)Information sharing has led to greater cooperation with neighboring police departments as well as with state and federal officials, and contributed to solving a number of crimes. In 2016, it was estimated that 20 of the nation's 50 largest police departments were using predictive software.

Crime and the Impact of Patrol

1)departments have tried various means to use patrol in order to provide service, order maintenance, and to achieve improvements in crime prevention and crime control. 2)Research has begun to provide direction for police administrators by finding crime reductions through a focus on hot spots and problem-oriented policing 3)crime rates have generally declined in the United States. 4)police officers' attention to small matters and more-frequent questioning of citizens helped to catch wanted suspects, discover criminal activity, deter potential criminal activity, and reduce the fear of crime within communities

In police work, the success of the group

1)depends on the cooperation of its members 2)all patrol officers operate under direct supervision, and their performance is measured by their contribution to the group's work 3) Besides supervisors, the officers' colleagues also evaluate and influence them.

The process of catching a suspect has three stages:

1)detection of a crime, 2) preliminary investigation, and 3) follow-up investigation. Depending on the outcome of the investigation, a fourth step may follow: 4)clearance and arrest

Throughout the socialization process,

1)experienced officers warn recruits to be suspicious and cautious. 2) Rookies are told about officers who were killed while trying to settle a family squabble or writing a traffic ticket. 3)Even minor offenses can escalate into extreme danger. 4)maintain a constant state of "high alert," always on the lookout and never letting down their guard. 5)Being surrounded by risks creates tension in officers' lives.

expressions of disrespect by officers toward members of the public and vice versa

1)finding indicates that police officers' own expressions of disrespect in encounters with citizens, such as name-calling and other kinds of derogatory statements, occur most often when those citizens had already shown disrespect to the officers 2)officers can help to influence the nature of their interactions with citizens through their own professional behavior

When detectives decide that a full-scale investigation is warranted, a wider search—known as a "cold" search

1)for evidence or weapons is carried out. Witnesses may be questioned again, informants contacted, and evidence gathered. 2)Because of the pressure of new cases, however, an investigation may be shelved so that resources can support "warmer" cases.

problem-oriented policing

1)found positive impacts on problems of crime and disorder from this policing approach

In a classic study, William Spelman and Dale Brown (1984)

1)found that the police succeeded in only 29 of 1,000 cases. 2)It made little difference whether they arrived 2 minutes or 20 minutes after the call. 3)What did matter, however, was how soon the police were called. 4)Although delayed arrival of the police is often due to slowness in calling, it seems unlikely that one could improve arrest rates merely by educating the public about their key role in stopping crime.

After they had been on the job for several years, the officers indicated that "job security"

1)had risen to be the top-ranked motivation and "opportunity to help people" dropped below job-related aspects such as benefits, early retirement, and career advancement

The expansion of criminal justice programs at community colleges and universities throughout the United States

1)has produced increasing numbers of law enforcement officers who have taken college courses in criminology, law, sociology, and psychology. 2)Competitive entry-level positions in the most-sought-after agencies, including federal law enforcement agencies, state police departments, and those in the cities and suburbs (which provide the most generous pay and benefits), now often effectively require a college education.

Community Policing

1)has taken hold in many cities. 2)Stephen Mastrofski and James Willis, -"community and problem-oriented policing have probably had the greatest impact in challenging American departments' commitment to the standard approach to police patrol" 3)community policing has been seen as the solution to problems with the crime-fighter stance that prevailed during the professional era 4)turned to community policing because the federal government has provided funding for the development of community-policing strategies and programs. 5) consists of attempts by the police to involve residents in making their own neighborhoods safer. 6)Based on the belief that citizens may be concerned about local disorder as well as crime in general, this strategy emphasizes cooperation between the police and citizens in identifying community needs and determining the best ways to meet them 7)an important element in crime reduction as officers become more closely connected to neighborhoods and receive greater cooperation from residents.

In the last 30 years, many studies

1)have been done on police methods of assigning tasks to patrol officers, mobilizing them, and communicating with them. 2)Much of this evidence points toward the importance of place-based policing, such as focusing officers' attention on crime "hot spots" in a community where crimes are repeatedly committed -These studies have caused experts to rethink some aspects of patrolling. 3)even when researchers agree on which patrol practices are the most effective and provide a basis for evidence-based policing, those practices often run counter to the desires of departmental personnel 4)foot patrol may be important for some community-policing strategies, but many officers would prefer to remain in squad cars rather than pound the pavement. 5) Police administrators therefore must deal with many issues in order to develop and implement effective patrol strategies.

. Studies done by the Police Foundation and other researchers

1)have found that, in general, male and female officers perform in similar ways. 2) Research has also found that most citizens have positive things to say about the work of women officers 3)women have generally superior performance in avoiding excessive use of force and when interviewing crime victims, especially in cases of sexual assault and domestic violence 4)Rape victims may also specifically request to be interviewed by a female officer, so gender diversity on a police force may be valuable for investigating specific types of crimes or dealing with specific victims and witnesses 5)Cultural expectations of women often conflict with ideas about the proper behavior of officers

In their classic study, James Q. Wilson and Barbara Boland (1979)

1)have shown the link between lower crime rates and patrol tactics that increase the risk of arrest 2)They argue that the effect of the police on crime depends less on how many officers are deployed in an area than on what they do while they are there. 3)This classic study showed that officers in an "anticrime patrol" in New York worked the streets of high-crime areas in civilian clothes. 4)Although they accounted for only 5 percent of the officers assigned to each precinct, during one year they made more than 18 percent of the felony arrests, including more than half of the arrests for robbery and about 40 percent of the arrests for burglary and auto theft

existence of data-analysis software

1)helps to make predictions about the timing and locations of certain kinds of criminal activity 2) development that can assist police departments in utilizing a strategy of policing hot spots 3)helps to make predictions about the timing and locations of certain kinds of criminal activity.

2011 the Santa Cruz County Sheriff's Office

1)hired four officers from the San Jose Police Department where 100 officers had been laid off in a budget cut 2)Such lateral hiring reduces opportunities for inexperienced applicants to be hired as new recruits. 3)Police departments throughout the country will be challenged to recruit and retain officers during the contemporary era of budget difficulties

In New York City, during a 2013 lawsuit about racial profiling

1)in stop-and-frisk searches of pedestrians that predominantly affected young African American and Hispanic men, a police chief testified about criticizing officers for not making enough frisks. 2)His description about the pressure applied by supervisory officers raised questions about whether this productivity measure contributed to discriminatory treatment of citizens

socialization

1)in which members learn the symbols, beliefs, and values of a group 2)The process by which the rules, symbols, and values of a group or subculture are learned by its members.

Initially, many male officers were upset by the entry of women

1)into what they viewed as a male world. 2)They complained that if their patrol partner was a woman, they could not be sure of her ability to provide necessary physical help in times of danger. 3) The challenges for female officers from ethnic minority groups may be even more difficult if they perceive others as doubting their qualifications and ability based on their race as well as their gender

Another form of police intervention that shows promising results in research

1)involves direct interactions between potential offenders and officers to provide clear communications about the consequences of criminal activity. 2) this may involve direct contact with gang members to let them know that they are being watched and that any use of guns or other illegal activities will be dealt with harshly in the criminal justice system.

the work in many other agencies, such as the FBI, DEA, and Secret Service,

1)is primarily carried out by plainclothes officers who focus on investigations. 2)key difference between federal special agents and detectives in local departments is that federal agents are more likely to be proactive in initiating investigations to prevent terrorism, drug trafficking, and other crimes. 3)In recent decades, because of public pressures, some departments have set up new special units to deal with bias crimes, child abuse, sexual assault, computer crime, and crimes targeting tourists 4)Most investigative units are separated from the patrol chain of command - Many argue that this results in duplication of effort and lack of continuity in handling cases - It often means that vital information known by one branch is not known by the other.

In light of contemporary budget cuts and reduced availability of federal grants for equipment,

1)it may be difficult for many departments to catch up with their larger-city colleagues' acquisition of new technology. 2)Yet, by 2007, more than 90 percent of departments in cities with 25,000 or more inhabitants used onboard computers 3) Departments purchase their own software and therefore cannot automatically share databases and communication with other agencies in order to increase efficiency in policing across city and state boundaries. 4)New York began a pilot project in 2012 to enable 400 foot-patrol officers to use smartphones with access to computerized arrest records, mugshots, and Department of Motor Vehicles databases. 5)ultraportable devices permit officers to check identities, records of crimes at specific locations, and other important matters as they walk through a housing project or make a stop-and-frisk search of a pedestrian

Although community policing has won support from police executives, the Police Foundation, the Police Executive Research Forum, and police researchers,

1)it may be difficult to put into effect 2) Police chiefs and midlevel managers, who usually deal with problems according to established procedures, may feel that their authority is decreased when responsibility goes instead to precinct commanders and officers on the streets 3)another problem is that it does not reduce costs; it requires either additional funds or redistribution within existing budgets 4)Measuring the success of this approach in reducing fear of crime, solving underlying problems, maintaining order, and serving the community is also difficult 5) Police officers may resist committing themselves to daily activities that emphasize goals other than the crime-fighting role that may have attracted them to a career in law enforcement

In the midst of significant budget cuts that lead to officer layoffs,

1)local police chiefs and sheriffs may look to volunteers as the means to maintain services for the community. 2)There are more than 29,000 unpaid sworn officers nationwide. 3)The use of volunteers in law enforcement functions can raise serious risks.

Community Affairs division of the New York City Police Department

1)makes a special effort to include meetings with neighborhood religious leaders, and arranges visits to meet residents in housing projects as part of officers' training

The 911 system has brought a flood of calls to police departments

1)many not directly related to police responsibilities. 2)In many places, the number of calls increased significantly as the spread of cell phones made it easier for people to make reports when incidents arose. 3)the willingness of witnesses to report crimes may depend on people's views of and trust in the police 4)remains the primary means for callers to reach their local government, but there are always concerns that those lines may become too tied up with emergency calls and thereby disrupt the ability of police and other emergency responders to receive quick reports about urgent situations 5)St. Louis, for example, paid for the development of a smartphone app that the public can use to quickly provide tips and reports about crime and other community problems

The current era of budget cuts and reductions in police-force personnel

1)may constrict police chiefs' flexibility in their use of officers. 2)other cities will look to Flint as an example of what they hope to avoid as the future of their own police patrols -, a high-crime city that was economically devastated by the decline of the auto industry, there were so few officers after two-thirds of the force was laid off by early 2011 that it could take hours for the few officers on each shift to respond to calls concerning serious crimes such as kidnapping and armed robbery 3)the state of Michigan provided assistance by sending Michigan State Police troopers to help patrol the city

When an offender enters a guilty plea, the bargain

1)may include an admission that he or she committed prior crimes. 2) Professional thieves know that they can gain favors from the police in exchange for "confessing" to unsolved crimes that they may not have committed.

Danger

1)officers are keenly aware of clues in people's behavior or in specific situations that indicate that violence and lawbreaking are imminent. 2)sworn officers, they are never off duty—and because they are known to be officers, they may be called on at any time, day or night, by neighbors or other acquaintances who need their help.

Albuquerque, New Mexico,

1)police department let applicants bypass the full range of testing during a period in which administrators were eager to quickly expand the size of the force

Through specialization and concentrated attention

1)police departments hope to impact continuous problems such as drug sales and prostitution 2)Special units are proactive and therefore provide officers with opportunities to plan strategies for catching lawbreakers

school resource officers (SROs)

1)police officers assigned to high schools under contractual arrangements between public schools and local police departments. 2)Police officers assigned for duty in schools to assist in order maintenance while also developing positive relationships with students that may assist in delinquency prevention. 3)More than 85 percent of police departments in cities ranging in size from 25,000 to 500,000 have officers assigned to SRO duty. 4) Percentages are slightly lower for larger cities and significantly lower for the smallest towns. 5)provide a visible presence that may deter student misconduct; they have full authority to enforce laws as well as school rules. 6)expected to develop relationships with students that will permit them to provide advice and guidance. 7) positioned to help develop positive relationships between young people and police. 8) frequently give formal talks in classrooms to educate students about law and the criminal justice system 9)concerns that teenage students may be unnecessarily routed into the criminal justice system as a result of SRO-issued misdemeanor citations for minor behavioral violations—incidents that would traditionally be handled by the high school principal's office 10) particularly important form of individualized special assignment because it shows how, in one specific setting, police officers' functions and duties extend well beyond the crime-fighting image that is commonly associated with law enforcement.

the zero-tolerance policy

1)putting more police on the streets, decentralizing authority to the precinct level, and instituting officer accountability 2)was assumed to be a major factor in reducing New York City's crime rate 3)New York City also saw increasing cries of outrage from citizens, especially those living in low-income, minority neighborhoods, that the police were being too aggressive. 4) reduced gang-related crime in targeted precincts in Detroit 5) also use aggressive patrol strategies to track high-risk parolees and apprehend them if they commit new offenses.

In a classic study of crime in Minneapolis

1)researchers found that a small number of hot spots—3 percent of streets and intersections—produced 50 percent of calls to the police. 2)By analyzing the places from which calls were made, administrators could identify those areas that produced the most crime 3)Because research casts doubt on the ability of officers to identify hot spots for themselves, departments need to gather data about crimes and order maintenance problem

Television portrays patrol officers as always on the go

1)rushing from one incident to another and making several arrests in a single shift. 2)officer may indeed be called to deal with a robbery in progress or to help rescue people from a burning building. 3)involving routine and even boring tasks such as directing traffic at minor accident scenes and road construction sites. 4)Most officers, on most shifts, do not make even one arrest.

observers fear that

1)several highly publicized deaths of unarmed African American men at the hands of police officers since 2014 contributed to this sudden drop in confidence in the police 2)public opinion polls show that white police officers' views about racial issues in American society differ not only from those of African American officers, but also from many other whites.

Society may benefit even more when officers spend their time in activities

1)that are hard to measure, such as calming disputes, becoming acquainted with people in the neighborhood, and providing services to those in need.

preventive patrol

1)that is, making the police presence known in an effort to deter crime and to make officers available to respond quickly to calls. 2)Whether walking the streets or cruising in a car, the patrol officer is on the lookout for suspicious people and behavior.

clearance rate

1)the percentage of crimes known to police that they believe they have solved through an arrest—is a basic measure of police performance. 2)varies by type of offense. 3) In reactive situations, this rate can be low. 4)For example, the police may first learn of a burglary hours or even days later; the clearance rate for such crimes is only about 13 percent. 5) for violent offenses is 47 percent 6) arrests for prostitution, gambling, and drug selling have a clearance rate of 100 percent, because every crime known to the police is matched with an arrest. 7)The arrest of a person often results in the clearance of other reported offenses, because the police can link some arrested persons with similar, unsolved crimes 8)Interrogation and lineups are standard procedures, as is the lesser-known practice of simply assigning unsolved crimes to the suspect.

beginning in the 1990s, the federal government actively encouraged

1)the spread of community-policing principles and even provided substantial funding for local communities to hire nearly 100,000 new police officers and carry out community-policing programs.

According to Susan Martin,

1)the statistics on women in policing provide both "good news and bad news ... because the steady numerical and proportional gains [are counterbalanced] by the concentrat[ion] of women at the bottom of the police hierarchy" 2)Women constitute 1 out of 8 local police officers but only 1 out of 10 first-line supervisors 3) In a few cities, such as Atlanta; Boston; Detroit; and Portland, Oregon, a small number of women have risen to the top ranks of police departments. 4)Elsewhere, employment discrimination lawsuits have helped open promotion opportunities for women

When agencies cut corners or make mistakes in their evaluation processes,

1)there are concerns that they will hire people who are unsuited to make the life-and-death decisions that sometimes confront police officers.

Victims are glad to see the police when

1)they are performing their law enforcement function, but the order maintenance function puts pressure on officers' authority. 2)Victims of crimes and accidents are often too hurt or distraught to thank the police.

When investigating victimless crimes,

1)they must rely on informers, stakeouts, wiretapping, stings, and raids. 2) proactive efforts to apprehend people who use or sell illegal drugs. 3)Because calls from victims reporting these crimes are few, crime rates for such offenses are nearly always reported as rates of arrest rather than rates of known criminal acts. 4) Law enforcement personnel attempt to intercept communications, monitor financial transactions and travel patterns, keep suspects under surveillance, and cultivate relationships with potential informers.

when sent to investigate a report of a fight, drunken neighbor, or domestic quarrel,

1)they usually do not find a cooperative complainant. Instead, they must contend not only with the perpetrators but also with onlookers who might escalate the conflict. 2) "handle the situation" by asserting authority without getting emotionally involved.

Although all states and many large cities have forensic labs,

1)this does not guarantee that the latest tests can be used in all cases. Not all labs have the same technical equipment and personnel 2). In addition, some police departments, especially those in small towns and rural areas, have little access to crime labs and other technology 3)Research suggests that the police have attached too much importance to investigation as a means of solving crimes. 4) most crimes are cleared because of arrests made by the patrol force at or near the scene

sworn officers

1)those who have taken an oath and been given the powers to make arrests and use necessary force in accordance with their duties. 2)Police employees who have taken an oath and been given powers by the state to make arrests and use necessary force, in accordance with their duties. 3)In small communities, police operations are not specialized, and the patrol force is the entire department. 4)must be prepared for any imaginable situation and must perform many duties.

The Illinois legislature enacted a law in 2014

1)to ban the use of traffic ticket quotas by police departments to require officers to engage in a measurable activity.

it is increasingly common for police agencies to cooperate with each other in multi-agency task forces

1)to better address specialized problems that are not confined to a specific spot in one city 2) For example, more than 70 percent of cities larger than 250,000 participate in antigang task forces, and more than half of such cities participate in human-trafficking task forces 3) Even with special units in place, however, patrol officers and investigators continue to deal with the same problems. 4) individual officers may receive special assignments, too.

Crime rates may have complex connections

1)to the state of the American economy, employment opportunities, family stability, neighborhood cohesion, and other factors. 2)scholars argue that undocumented immigrants typically add to stability in poor neighborhoods by gaining employment, promoting marriage and family stability, and avoiding behaviors that will draw the attention of police 3)Other debates surround the impact of stiff sentences, high incarceration rates, and the subsequent reentry each year of nearly 700,000 ex-prisoners into American communities.

evidence-based policing

1)tool for making decisions about deployment of personnel and officers' duties on patrol 2) involves the examination of social science research on crime and policing, and the translation of that research into practical strategies for police departments to employ when addressing crime and other problems. 3) draws from research studies that guide police to proactively employ specific strategies aimed at targeted locations within a city or town 4) can be enhanced through cooperation and communication between law enforcement officials and criminal justice researchers. 5) contemporary police departments can use evidence based practices to focus their crime control activities on hot spots and problem-oriented policing as a means of using patrol officers to impact crime. 6)scholars are increasingly aware of their responsibility for designing studies and translating research results in ways that are usable by police departments.

Vice

1)vice laws depends on proactive police work, which often involves the use of undercover agents and informers. 2)Most big-city police departments have a vice unit. 3)Vice officers often must engage in degrading activities, such as posing as prostitutes or drug dealers, in order to catch lawbreakers. 4)The special nature of vice work requires members of the unit to be well trained in the legal procedures that must be followed if arrests are to lead to convictions. 5)Undercover officers are in a position to blackmail gamblers and drug dealers and may also be offered bribes. In addition, officers must be transferred when their identities become known. 6)The growth of undercover work and electronic surveillance, common in vice patrols, troubles critics who favor more-open policing 7)fear that the use of these tactics violates civil liberties and increases government intrusion into the private lives of citizens, whether or not those citizens commit crimes.

If people in neighborhoods composed largely of members from a specific ethnic or racial group

1)view the police as "outsiders" who are different and hostile, developing the community cooperation needed to prevent and investigate crimes can be difficult. 2)When a force employs police officers from all demographic groups, the police gain legitimacy because they are seen as reflecting the interests of all people and there may be reductions in race-based disparities affecting who is stopped, searched, or arrested 3)may gain concrete benefits in communication and cooperation. 4), many of the minority and female officers who served as trailblazers to desegregate departments faced hostility and harassment from their colleagues as they attempted to prove themselves 5)Women and minorities now represent an increasing portion of the force, especially in urban areas.

Stark examples arose in cities

1)with two of the most controversial shootings of unarmed African Americans by white police officers in 2014 and 2015 2)Ferguson, Missouri, and North Charleston, South Carolina—cities in which African Americans represent the largest racial group among residents. 3) Many critics believe that police departments will be more responsive to community needs and less likely to regularly engage in biased actions when the officer corps reflects the diversity of the community. 4) the advancement of diversity reflects the American value of equal opportunity

Community policing has four components (Skolnick and Bayley, 1986):

1. Community-based crime prevention 2.Changing the focus of patrol activities to nonemergency services 3.Making the police more accountable to the public 4.Including residents in decision making -community policing requires a major shift in the philosophy of policing. -police officials must view citizens as customers to be served and as partners in the pursuit of social goals, rather than as a population to be watched, controlled, and served reactively -Departments that view themselves as emphasizing community policing do not necessarily implement identical patrol strategies and initiatives -Some departments emphasize identifying and solving problems related to disorder and crime. Other departments work mainly on strengthening local neighborhoods. -Organizational factors can also affect the implementation of community policing, including the extent to which community policing is truly a priority and supported by police administrators at all levels of law enforcement - may be carried out by patrol officers assigned to walk neighborhood beats so that they can get to know residents better. -may entail creating police mini-stations in the community and police-sponsored programs for youth and the elderly. -may also survey citizens to find out about their problems and needs - The common element in community-policing programs is a high level of interaction between officers and citizens, and the involvement of citizens in identifying problems and assisting the development of solutions -central feature of community policing for many departments is problem-oriented policing ,

The patrol function has three parts:

1. answering calls for help 2. maintaining a police presence 3. probing suspicious circumstances 1)Patrol officers are well suited to answering calls, because they usually are near the scene and can move quickly to provide help or catch a suspect 2)At other times, they engage in preventive patrol 3)With experience, officers come to trust in their own ability to spot signs of suspicious activity that merit stopping people on the street for questioning. 4)also help maintain smooth relations between the police and the community. 5)As the most visible members of the criminal justice system, they can profoundly affect the willingness of citizens to cooperate. 6) When officers earn the trust and respect of the residents of the neighborhoods they patrol, people become much more willing to provide information about crimes and suspicious activities. 7). Effective work by patrol officers can also help reduce citizens' fear of crime and foster a sense of security. 8)these officers often find themselves in complex situations requiring sound judgment and careful actions 9)As the first to arrive at a crime scene, the officer must comfort and give aid to victims, identify and question witnesses, control crowds, and gather evidence. 10) calls for good communication skills 11) has the most direct contact with the public, the image of the police and their relations with the community stem from patrol officers' actions. 12)successful investigations and prosecutions often depend on patrol officers' actions in questioning witnesses and gathering evidence after a crime. 13)involves the most contact with the public, the best-qualified officers should be chosen to perform it.

What is a hot spot?

A location that generates a high number of calls for police response.

What is aggressive patrol?

A proactive strategy designed to maximize the number of police interventions and observations in a community.

How has the profile of American police officers changed?

Better educated, more female and minority officers.

What is incident-driven policing?

Citizen expectation that the police will respond quickly to every call.

What are the major elements of community policing?

Community policing emphasizes order maintenance and service. It attempts to involve members of the community in making their neighborhoods safe. Foot patrol and decentralization of command are usually part of community-policing efforts.

What factors affect patrol assignments?

Crime rates, "problem neighborhoods," degree of urbanization, pressures from business people and community groups, and socioeconomic conditions.

What are the two key elements of police work that define the officer's working personality?

Danger, authority.

What is the job of the detective?

Detectives examine the crime scene, question witnesses and victims, and focus on gathering evidence to solve crimes.

patrol is a strategy designed to deploy resources specifically to high-crime areas.

Directed

What are the four types of stress felt by the police?

External stress, organizational stress, personal stress, operational stress.

What are the main requirements for becoming a police officer?

High school diploma, good physical condition, absence of a criminal record.

What kinds of special operations units do police departments often employ?

Line functions: Traffic, vice, narcotics, juvenile.

What are the advantages of foot patrol? Of motorized patrol?

Officers on foot patrol have greater contact with residents of a neighborhood, thus gaining their confidence and assistance. Officers on motorized patrol have a greater range of activity and can respond speedily to calls.

How do one-person and two-person patrol units compare?

One-person patrols are more cost-efficient; two-person patrols are thought to be safer.

____________________ stress is produced by the paramilitary character of police forces.

Organizational stress

What is the difference between line and staff functions?

Personnel assigned to line functions are directly involved in field operations; those assigned to staff functions supplement and support the line function.

Analyze patrol strategies that police departments employ

Police administrators must make choices about possible patrol strategies, which include directed patrol, foot patrol, and aggressive patrol. Community policing seeks to involve citizens in identifying problems and working with police officers to prevent disorder and crime. Research has raised questions about the effectiveness of police patrol techniques and community policing for reducing crime.

Describe the main functions of police patrol, investigation, and special operations units

Police services are delivered through the work of the patrol, investigation, and specialized operations units. The patrol function has three components: answering calls for assistance, maintaining a police presence, and probing suspicious circumstances. The investigative function is the responsibility of detectives in close coordination with patrol officers. The felony apprehension process is a sequence of actions that includes crime detection, preliminary investigation, follow-up investigation, clearance, and arrest. Large departments usually have specialized units dealing with traffic, drugs, vice, and juveniles.

Which is not an instance of proactive policing?

Responding to citizen calls for service

Analyze the factors that affect police response

The police are mainly reactive rather than proactive, which often leads to incident-driven policing. The organization of the police bureaucracy influences how the police respond to citizens' calls. The productivity of a force can be measured in various ways, including the clearance rate; however, measuring proactive approaches is more difficult.

Describe the elements of the police officer's "working personality"

The police work in an environment greatly influenced by their subculture. The concept of the working personality helps us understand the influence of the police subculture on how individual officers see their world. The isolation of the police strengthens bonds among officers but can also add to job stress.

Which of the following is an example of a proactive strategy to combat crime?

Using a stakeout in victimless crimes

When a group shares symbols, beliefs, and attitudes, they have

a subculture

The police culture

also encourages the bonding that often occurs among people who deal with violence.

Officer Jenkins is experiencing high levels of________ stress as a result of facing real threats and dangers nearly every day.

external

About 40% of sworn officers are women.

false

Modern-day police practices use patrol units with two officers.

false

Research conducted on large police departments found that a key factor in solving crimes was

identification of the perpetrator by the victim or witnesses.

many police executives are clearly working to

identify impediments to adoption of research-based practices and seeking to persuade their officers about the value of switching from traditional policing approaches, such as preventive patrol, to new emphases that have demonstrated benefits, such as hot-spot policing.

The approach to policing that emphasizes a quick response to calls for service is called ______ policing.

incident-driven

Traffic regulation is a ____ job of the police.

major

The different types of patrol are foot, bicycle, and ____________________ patrol.

motorized

Where does socialization to police work take place?

on the job.

. In small towns and rural areas,

patrol officers must conduct investigations because police departments are too small to have separate detective bureaus

Most sworn officers are part of

patrol units

____________________ and ____________________ are the two largest and most important units in a police department.

patrol, investigation

Many cities have adopted the use of police body cameras as a means to make

police officers self-conscious about their interactions with citizens, reduce rights violations and improper use of force, and hold officers accountable for improper behavior

Enforcement of vice laws depends on ______ police work, which often involves the use of undercover agents and informers.

proactive

The most important reason reported for becoming a police officer, regardless of officer sex or race, is .

the opportunity to help people

The performance of the police is not based solely on the types of people recruited; it is also shaped by their _______.

training

__________ is where the officer learns the subculture of the department.

training

As the population and political power shift toward minorities in some American cities, the composition of their police forces reflects this change.

true

Police officers today have more formal education than their predecessors.

true

Problem-oriented policing tries to find the underlying causes of crime.

true

The clearance rate—the percentage of crimes known to police that they believe they have solved through an arrest—is a basic measure of police performance.

true

A police officer's ____________________ is a complex set of emotional and behavioral characteristics.

working personality

Sargent Owens, an experienced police officer, has a particular , ___________ or set of emotional and behavioral characteristics developed by members of an occupational group in response to the work situation and environmental influences.

working personality

Responding to danger is a component of a police officer's

working personality.