CMST 2120 Exam #2 (Chapters 3-5)

Scientific Management Perspective/School Definition

Theoretical approach to organizations that emphasizes organizational design, worker training for efficiency, chains of command, and division of labor. The perspective rests on the assumption that work and organizations can be rationally or "scientifically" designed and developed

Integrated Perspectives Viewpoints

Theories that attempt to explain how people, technologies, and environments integrate to influence goal-directed behavior in organizations

Feminist Organization Theories

Theories that critique the gendered assumptions of modern organizations and call for the recognition and valuing of multiple voices and perspectives Particular attention to valuing the man as rational and the woman as supportive and nurturing

3. Scalar Chain **

the movement of messages both vertically and horizontally throughout the organization the chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest ranks - all communications should start with or go to the ultimate authority * Fayol admitted that sometimes the chain required too much time for messages to travel efficiently though all the links (vertically to and from ultimate authority), so he suggested that a "gang plank" where peers communicated directly without regard to the scalar chain --------> known as * Fayol's Bridge: horizontal communication between peers

Choice Making:

the selection of options based on knowledge alternatives a central component to the ethics of communication

Value Congruence

the similarity between individual and organizational values

6. Esprit de Corps

the strongest organization exhibited union of purpose could be achieved by implementing principle of unity of command warned against dividing and ruling and the abuse of written communication

Values

the subjective assessments made about the relative worth of a quality or object - they influence our behavior in making choices and judgments Both organizations and individuals have value sets that are expressed through communication behaviors

1. Locus of Control

the value we place as organizational members on connections between our efforts and the success or failure of the organization A. Internal • Organizational advancement as a result of our own efforts B. External • Organizational advancement as the result of luck, politics, or random selection

5 Cultural Approaches

theories that describe how organizational members collectively interpret the organizational world around them to define the importance of organization happenings. Approaches to theory that explain organizational behavior in terms of the influence of cultures that exist both internally and externally to the organization and how organizations are identified 1. Organizational Culture Formation 2. Strong Culture Perspective 3. Subculture Perspective 4. Fragmentation Perspective 5. Identification Perspective

Ethical Communication:

1. Supports informed choice making 2. Fosters conditions for growth and development 3. Values the innate worth of human beings

5. Initiative

ability to think through and execute plans

Instrumental Values

desirable behaviors or modes of conduct that are related to and influence terminal values Examples: ambitious, capable, cheerful, courageous, forgiving, helpful, honest, imaginative, independent, polite, logical, responsible

Ethical communication is an important prerequisite for...

effectiveness for both individuals and entire organizations

3. Theory of Justice

emphasizes balance or equity - guidance by fairness, impartiality, consistence, and equity

Bureaucracy

organizations based on formalized rules, regulations, and procedures which make authority rational as opposed to charismatic or traditional

Max Weber

"Father of Bureaucracy" Bureaucracy: organizations based on formalized rules, regulations, and procedures which make authority rational as opposed to charismatic or traditional Believed Bureaucratic Model for Organization should be based on: • Authority Relationships that emphasized depersonalization and task competence

Frederick Taylor:

"The Father of Scientific Management" Believed scientific management could only be accomplished with: • 1. Well-defined chain of command • 2. Very specific division of labor Taylor's Time and Motion Study: • Technique for determining the efficiency of production through work observation and time measurements; used to develop work standards that can be measured for efficiency ("one best method of task design")

Values vs. Ethics

*** Our values influence what we determine to be ethical Values are our measures of importance Ethics represent our judgments about right and wrong

Model of Culture with 3 Levels

1. Artifacts and Creations ----> most visible level, consists of the physical and social environment created by organizational members ----> includes architecture, technology, furniture, dress, behaviors 2. Values ---->refers to both individual and group preferences for the way things should be in the organization 3. Basic Assumptions ----> core of what individuals believe to be true about the world and how it works o 1. Humanity's relationship to nature o 2. Nature of reality and truth o 3. Nature of human nature o 4. Nature of human activity o 5. Nature of human relationship

2 Ethical Responsibilities:

1. Assuming personal responsibility 2. Taking accountable action

Fayol's 14 Principles of Administration/Mananagement

1. Authority 2. Unity of Command 3. Scalar Chain: 4. Equity 5. Initiative 6. Esprit de Corps The following are not explicitly listed in the book but some are referred to: 7. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest ----> (The interests of one employee should not be allowed to become more important than those of the group. This includes managers) 8. Remuneration ----> (Employee satisfaction depends on fair remuneration for everyone. This includes financial and non-financial compensation) 9. Centralization ----> (This principle refers to how close employees are to the decision-making process. It is important to aim for an appropriate balance) 10. Order ----> (The workplace facilities must be clean, tidy and safe for employees. Everything should have its place) 11. Stability of Tenure of Personnel ----> (Managers should strive to minimize employee turnover. Personnel planning should be a priority) 12. Division of Work ----> (When employees are specialized, output can increase because they become increasingly skilled and efficient) 13. Discipline ----> (Discipline must be upheld in organizations, but methods for doing so can vary) 14. Unity of Direction ----> (Teams with the same objective should be working under the direction of one manager, using one plan. This will ensure that action is properly coordinated.)

8 Cultural Themes of the most excellent, innovative companies:

1. Bias for action 2. Close to the Customer o service, reliability, concern for needs, leads to innovation 3. Autonomy and Entrepreneurship o encouraged risk-taking and innovation and gave people responsibility for their own ideas 4. Productivity through people o workers at all levels were source of quality and productivity 5. Hands-on, Value-driven o bigger importance on philosophies and values of organization than technology and material resources - values considered core of excellence 6. Stick to the Knitting o stay in the business you know 7. Simple form, lean staff o simple organizational structures 8. Simultaneous loose-tight properties o centralized with values, autonomy and entrepreneurship at al levels o decentralized with decision-making

5 Basic Elements of Organizational Culture:

1. Business Environment o single greatest influence in shaping a corporate culture - how companies act in competitive environments shapes reality of organizational management 2. Values o organizational values help people become dedicated to a cause 3. Heroes o real live human successes that become role models for the culture's values 4. Rites and rituals o Management rituals (meeting size, table arrangement, etc), recognition rituals (awards) 5. Cultural Network o informal organizational communication

4 Elements as the Foundation of Scientific Management:

1. Careful selection of workers 2. Inducing and training workers by the scientific method 3. Equal division of work between management and workers 4. Discovering the scientific method for tasks and jobs (Held management responsible for this)

3 Types of Authority, according to Weber:

1. Charismatic based on the specific characteristics of the person exerting authority and that characteristics inspire others to follow believed contributed to unstable organizations and disorderly transition of power from one person to another (because individualized) 2. Traditional associated with the customs of a group or society (example: family company ownership passes from parents to children) 3. Bureaucratic *** Ideal for organizations ---> Places primary emphasis on the goals of the organization and individual interests second Rests on formalized rules, regulations and procedures that made authority "rational-legal", not based on personal charisma or tradition Designed to counteract nepotism, favoritism, and unbalanced decision making Hierarchy of authority with a scalar chain of command • Based on competence, division of labor, task specialization, and qualifications - rationality

5 Climates in which Ethical Dilemmas Arise:

1. Climate of broken organizational promise 2. Climate in which no on takes responsibility 3. Climate of denying participation and dissent 4. Climate requiring whistle-blowing 5. Climate of cultural relativism

6 Unethical Organizational Messages:

1. Coercive 2. Destructive 3. Deceptive 4. Intrusive 5. Secretive 6. Manipulative

Courageous Followers have:

1. Courage to Confront Leaders Acting in a Destructive Manner o Inappropriate behavior damages the relationship between leaders and followers and threatens the purpose of the organization. Courageous followers need to confront leaders acting in a destructive manner 2. Courage to Participate in Transformation 3. Courage to Leave

Incompatibilities that form the 4 Foundations of Ethical Dilemmas

1. Economic performance o goal of profit 2. Competence o tangible or intangible assets that yield sustainable competitive advantage 3. The Learning Organization o an organization's capacity to change strategies, tactics, or performance 4. The Organization as Community o respect for rights and fulfillment of duty * Dilemmas occur because decisions that improve competences, learning, and performance can easily hurt communities

3 Approaches through which Ethical Principles are applied in Organizational Communication Contexts:

1. Ethical codes of conduct 2. Ethics training 3. Strategies to create more accessible, open and responsive structures and procedures

7 Characteristics of Sensemaking

1. Grounded in identity construction 2. Retrospective 3. Enactive of sensible environments 4. Social 5. Ongoing 6. Focused on and by extracted cues 7. Driven by plausibility rather than accuracy

Three Key Elements of Communication:

1. Involves Choice 2. Reflects Values 3. Has Consequences

5 Work Values Dimensions (value dimensions that affect our organizational lives)

1. Locus of Control 2. Self-esteem 3. Tolerance of Ambiguity 4. Social Judgment 5. Risk-taking

Ethical Communication Behaviors Promote:

1. Participation 2. Transparency 3. Accountability 4. Support Courageous Actions

5 Basic Activities of Management

1. Planning • development of organizational strategies for the organization and the forecasting of future needs 2. Organizing • use of people and materials to implement the organizational plan or goals 3. Commanding • management function of obtaining maximum or optimum return for the organization from human and material resources 4. Coordinating • function of integrating the efforts of all organizational members 5. Controlling • required management to establish how closely to its plan the organization was operating

2 Approaches of Integrated Perspectives School

1. Process and Environmental Approaches 2. Cultural Approaches

Peter Senge's 5 Component Technologies (that converge to innovate learning organizations)

1. System Thinking • the ability to think about connections and patterns and to view systems as wholes, not individual parts of the patterns 2. Personal Mastery • developing special levels of proficiency - personal mastery is the discipline of continually clarifying and deepening our personal vision, focusing our energies, developing patience, and seeing reality objectively; organizations capacity for learning can be no greater than that of its members 3. Mental Models • deeply ingrained assumptions, generalizations, or even pictures/images that influence ho we understand the world and how we take action 4. Building shared vision • the capacity to hold a shared picture of the future we seek to create 5. Team learning • learning that starts with dialogue, the capacity of members of a team to suspend assumptions and enter into genuine "thinking together"

4 Guidelines for Evaluating Behavior

1. The Habit of Search o ethical communication that willingly explores the complexity of any issue or problem 2. The Habit of Justice o ethical communication that presents information as openly and fairly as possible with concern for message distortion 3. The Habit of Public Versus Private Motivations o ethical communication based on sharing sources of information, special opinions, motivations, or biases that may influence positions 4. The Habit of Respect for Dissent o ethical communication that encourages opposing viewpoints and arguments

Model of how Organizational Cultures begin:

1. The founder has an idea for a new enterprise 2. A founding group is created with members who have initial consensus about the idea 3. A founding group acts to bring structure and resources to the idea 4. The initial functioning of the group is based on the idea and develops a history

6 Orientations of Personal Values

1. Theoretical 2. Economic 3. Aesthetic 4. Social 5. Political 6. Religious

3 Frameworks of Ethics

1. Utilitarian Theory 2. Theory of Rights 3. Theory of Justice

3. Aesthetic (I think the main list of orientations above might be enough)

Artistry Harmony Form

Henri Fayol

Credited with the first known attempt to describe broad principles of management for the organization and conduct of business Proposed 14 Principles of Administration or Management that he viewed as essential for effective organization

4. Systems Theory

Daniel Kratz and Robert Kahn Emphasizes interaction with the larger environment: organizations as made up of subsystems that take in materials and human resources (inputs), process materials and resources (throughputs), and yield a finished product to the larger environment (outputs) System's Cybernetic: self-corrective system Law of Equifinality: many different courses of action can reach a the same, single goal Principle of Optimization: looking for maximum output in return for minimum input Autopoiesis: process describing each element in a system simultaneously combining the maintenance of itself with the maintenance of the other elements in the system (a unique identity and a clear boundary, yet merged with its environment) Example Systems: 1. Open System: seeks a dynamic equilibrium among input, throughput, and output - exhibits the Law of Equifinality and has a sound self-corrective mechanism 2. Closed System: limits exchange with the environment and management's ability to adjust 3. Organic System: suited to change - similar to open systems 4. Mechanistic System: functions in stable conditions - similar to closed systems

3. Sub-Culture Perspective

Differentiation work Willingness to acknowledge inconsistencies, see consensus as only occurring within subculture boundaries and acknowledge conflict of interest Subcultures identified and associated with almost any type of difference in perception or situation such as status, seniority, gender, race, ethnicity, geography

Value Diversity

Diverse functions, leadership, and histories within organizations contribute to differences in what is desirable and important - differences are expected to increase with globalization o Between cultures, within the work place, between races, age, gender

Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor Theory X - characterizes assumptions underlying Scientific Management theory Managers assume that workers dislike work and will avoid responsible labor; workers are not ambitious and prefer direction Theory Y - associated with assumptions common to the Human Behavior perspective Assumes people view work as being as natural as play; workers are ambitious and can be self-directed and self-controlled McGregor favored Theory Y, but described both Theories as a range of behaviors managers can draw from

1. Organizational Culture Formation

Edgar Schein Organizational Culture: a pattern of basic assumption - invented, discovered or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration - that has worked well enough to be valid and therefore to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems

Hawthorne Studies

Elton Mayo - credited with beginning the Human Behavior point of view Hawthorne Studies • Mayo experimented with the alteration of physical working conditions to increase productivity Hawthorne Effect: group norms that influence productivity apart from the physical production environment Led to: importance of human interaction and morale for productivity Result: production could no longer be viewed as solely dependent on formal job and organizational design

2. Sociotechnical Integration

Eric Trist and Kenneth Bamforth Theoretical attempt to balance human social-psychological needs with organizational goals Two assumptions: • 1. Organizational production is optimized through optimizing social and technical systems • 2. Constant interchange exists between the work system and the broader environment Result: meaning in work could be established through group assignments that permit individuals to be included in entire task cycles rather than work on isolated parts of the job - teams

Mary Parker Follett

Famous for her psychological foundations of the smoothly operating organization "Principles of Coordination"

Scientific Management (GENERAL UNDERSTANDING)

General: o "Scientific" approach to the design of organizations based on a carefully developed chain of command and efficient division of labor. Communication is viewed as management's responsibility, with task and rule related messages moving along formal networks in a downward direction. As such, messages are expected to be low in equivocality. Decision-making and influence are management-controlled variables of the organization. Culture is not considered and viewed as inappropriate.

Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist Perspectives (GENERAL UNDERSTANDING)

General: o Focus on power and domination or the challenging of traditional hierarchical and patriarchal systems of authority. Postmodern organizations are described as flexible structures needing workers with multiple skills who are capable of continual learning. Market niches replace mass consumption, and workplace democracy replaces bureaucracy. Teams replace the emphasis on the individual contributor. Critical theory is a criticism of society, organizations, and social constructions. Feminist perspectives challenge the gendered assumptions of modern organizations and call for the recognition and valuing of multiple voices and perspectives in a democracy environment.

Integrated Perspectives (GENERAL UNDERSTANDING)

General: o Grew out of criticisms of both Scientific Management and Human Behavior perspectives because they had failed to integrate organizational structure, technology, and people with the larger environments in which organizations exist. Integrated Perspectives approach attempted to explain how people, technology, and environments interact to influence goal-directed behavior. Cultural approaches attempt to explain organization behavior in terms of the influence of culture. Communication is viewed as both a central process for organizational effectiveness and as dependent on the needs of a particular organization.

Human Behavior (GENERAL UNDERSTANDING)

General: o Shifts emphasis away from the structure of organizations, work design, and measurement to the interactions of individuals, their motivations, and influence on organizational events. Communication described as performing organizing, relationship, and change functions, with all organizational members participating. Effective communication was vital to the use of human resources and good organizational decision-making. Networks are both formal and informal, and message equivocality can be high. Decision-making occurs throughout the organization, particularly if the organization demonstrates a supportive environment. The peer group is viewed as a primary source of influence. Interaction at all levels.

1. Decision-Making Process

Herbert Simon's concept that organizational behavior is a complex network of decisions, with decision-making processes influencing the behavior of the entire organization Bounded Rationality: assumption that people intend to be rational, but with limited information-processing capacity, human decision making is based on selective perception and therefore exhibits "limited" rationality Satisficing: the making of decisions with partial information in the hope the decision will be good enough, if not the best

Postmodern Perspectives

Postmodern condition as highly ordered, technologically specialized, mass-mediated, demanding of precision, speed, flexibility, and adaptability in individual performance Promote numerous constructions of reality, foster ambiguity, raise distrust of traditional authority, and stimulate alternative sensemaking

What does ethical communication depend on?

Individuals taking responsibility for their personal behaviors

3. Contingency Theory

Joan Woodward, Paul Lawrence, and Jay Lorsch Approach that rejects the "one best way" to organize in favor of the view that no specific set of prescriptions is appropriate for all organizations. As such, an organization must adapt to changing circumstances and the needs of individuals and the environment in which the organization operates Differences in organizations are due to differences in goals and environments Organizations have 3 Primary Relationships that determine how they operate: 1. Organization-to-environment level 2. Group-to-group level 3. Individual-to-organization level

Sensemaking Model

Karl Weick Central role of individuals actions in determining what is the "sense of situations" - we make decisions and then render them sensible by explaining the meaning of our decisions (not according to a well-developed plan) ---> Intersection of interpretation and action

4. Social (I think the main list of orientations above might be enough)

Love Concern for Others Service

2. Economic (I think the main list of orientations above might be enough)

Material Acquisition Usefulness Pragmatism

Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist Perspecitves/School

Postmodern and Critical Perspectives: Theories that focus on power and domination and on challenges to hierarchy, bureaucracy and management control Feminist Perspectives: Theories that critique the gendered assumptions of modern organizations and call for the recognition and valuing of multiple voices and perspectives

5. Political (I think the main list of orientations above might be enough)

Power Influence Domination Leadership

Theory of Participative Management:

Rensis Likert's theory of employee-centered management based on effectively functioning groups linked together structurally throughout the organization (the Linking Pin function) Called for an increase in participation by organizational members at all levels and for members to have multiple group memberships Trust between management and employees and by decisions being made throughout the organization - accurate communication flows in all directions and employees are motivated because of their participation in organizational events and in shaping their own futures Research to determine how management differed between successful and less successful organizations

Human Behavior Perspective/School

Shifts the emphasis from the structure of organizations, work design, and measurement to the interactions of individuals, their motivations, and their influence on organizational events Assumes work is accomplished through people and emphasizes cooperation, participation, satisfaction, and interpersonal skills

Power distance:

Status differentiation and hierarchies • Small power distance - equal power distributions, symmetrical relations, equitable reward and cost distributions based on individual merit • Large power distance - unequal power distributions, asymmetrical relations, rewards and sanctions based on rank, role, status, age, gender

Organizational Responsibilities...

Sustainability (environment, global, etc) Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): a voluntary form of self-regulation with a desire to benefit the bottom line

Time and Motion Study

Technique for determining the efficiency of production through work observation and time measurements; used to develop work standards that can be measured for efficiency

Ethics

The standards by which behaviors are evaluated for their morality Moral principles that guide judgments about good and bad, right and wrong, of communication, not just communication effectiveness or efficiency

1. Theoretical (I think the main list of orientations above might be enough)

Truth Knowledge Order Rationale

6. Religious (I think the main list of orientations above might be enough)

Unity Meaningful Relationships to the world

Critical Theory

a criticism of society, organizations, and social constructions Central theme is the issues of power and power abuse in organizations and society

Value System

an enduring organization of beliefs concerning preferable modes of conduct or end-states of existence along a continuum of relative importance

5 Process and Environmental Approaches (of Integrated Perspectives Viewpoints)

attempt to describe how complex processes such as decision making influence the internal operation of organizations and are influenced by external environments 1. Decision-Making Process 2. Sociotechnical Integration 3. Contingency Theory 4. Systems Theory 5. Learning organizations:

4. Fragmentation Perspective

change and flux are the norm, not the exception suggests the strong culture and subculture views do not adequately explain the nature of change for most organizations and individuals - fragmentation sees issue-specific consensus more likely than the shared consensus in either strong cultures of subcultures

4. Equity

combination of kindness and justice toward all, necessary to encourage workers to carry out duties with devotion and loyalty

Terminal Values

concerns for end states or desirable goals Examples: comforting life, sense of accomplishment, world at peace, world of beauty, equality, security, freedom, happiness, wisdom, friendship, pleasure

Hawthorne Effect Definition:

group norms that influence productivity apart from the physical production environment

5. Identification Perspective

in the midst of constant change, organizations seek to differentiate themselves from others - creating uniqueness based on stable and important organizational characteristics Organizational Identification: active organizational attempts to have various stakeholders positively view the identity or image of the organization; process where individuals define themselves in terms of organizational self-definitions or reject identification with specific organizations

Applied Ethics

issues of ethical decision making and problem solving in professional and organizational communities - focus on identifying norms, standards, guidelines, and processes of professional and organizational practices and methods for promoting ethical decision making

1. Authority

management was responsible for the exercise of authority authority as a job title vs. "personal authority" (authority based on intelligence, experience, moral worth, ability to lead, and past service)

Stated values by an organization are...

not always the values exhibited and circulated in practical circumstances

2. Theory of Rights

o emphasizes individuals' entitlements or privileges as members of a society - all individuals have certain inalienable rights that are defined by society and these rights must be respected in all situations Commonly accepted basic moral rights: 1. The right of free consent 2. The right to privacy 3. The right to freedom of conscience 4. The right of free speech 5. The right to due process

1. Utilitarian Theory

o evaluates behavior based on outcomes or consequences for those involved - our actions are judged by their consequences or outcomes o weighs the effects of the decision for the majority - greatest good for greatest number of people

5. Learning organizations:

organizations gaining knowledge from continuous processes of information exchange between the organization and its environments Peter Senge's 5 Component Technologies (that converge to innovate learning organizations) 1. System Thinking 2. Personal Mastery 3. Mental Models 4. Building Shared Vision 5. Team Learning

2. Unity of Command

specific recommendations for communication - orders should come from only one superior and that a bypass of the chain of command would be a source of problems

2. Strong Culture Perspective

strong or unified cultures developed by leadership (management) in order to guide an organization to excellence effective leaders identify values important for success and then build cultures around those values Terrence Deal and Allen Kennedy

Whistle-blowing:

the exposure of illegal behavior to organizational outsiders

3. Tolerance of Ambiguity

value or importance we place on structured or unstructured work environments A. Structured Work B. Unstructured Work

5. Risk-Taking

value that explores the importance we place on quick rather than deliberative action and whether we prefer our own sense of job fulfillment as opposed to job security A. Action-oriented B. Uncertainty as challenging

2. Self-Esteem

value we place on recognition for work, positive feedback, and the use of our contributions A. Recognition B. Trust C. Worth

4. Social Judgment

value we place on the feelings of others and our general assumptions about why people work A. Assumptions about others B. Interpersonal Sensitivity

3 Major Functions for Understanding Organizational Communication:

• 1. Functional tradition • 2. Meaning-Centered approach • 3. Emerging Perspectives

4 Communication Competencies

• 1. Knowledge • 2. Sensitivity • 3. Skills • 4. Values

4 Major Perspectives/Schools of Organizational thought:

• 1. Scientific Management • 2. Human Behavior • 3. Integrated Perspectives • 4. Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist Perspectives

Organizational value sets...

• Are the bedrock of an organization's culture • Transmit, maintain, and change through organizational communication processes • Are part of the shared realities shared through organizational communication • Influence the decisions members make