Cognitive Psyc Ch 7

* Free recall of the stimulus list "apple, desk, shoe, sofa, plum, chair, cherry, coat, lamp, pants" will most likely yield which of these response patterns?

"apple, cherry, plum, shoe, coat, pants, lamp, chair"

* Your instructor introduced an example that was very similar to the above question. The example was about two boys playing ________.

A video game (Starcraft)

* Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the experiment with which the testing effect was proposed? a. Participants read target passages (about which they will be tested) followed by math problems. Then, as a prep, they either reread the passages (rereading group) or recalled what they have learned (testing group). Finally, they were tested through a recall test after a varying delay of 5 minutes, 2 days, or 1 week. b. Testing oneself is better than rereading especially when the delay between learning and testing is relatively long. c. Testing effect was replicated with young subjects (e.g., 8th grades) and with other materials (e.g., history). d. All of the above are correct description of the testing effect experiment.

All of the above are correct description of the testing effect experiment.

* Bransford and Johnson'(1972) had participants hear a passage about a man on the street serenading his girlfriend who lived in a tall building. The wording of the passage made it difficult to understand, but looking at a picture about the story made it easier to understand and memories the contents. The results of this study illustrated the importance of _________ in forming reliable long-term memories.

An organizational context (i.e., big picture/framework)

* Finally, beware of highlighting. The problem with highlighting is that it seems like elaborative processing (you're taking an active role in your reading by highlighting important points), but it often becomes ______________ that involves moving the hand, but little deep thinking about the material.

Automatic behavior

* According to the transfer appropriate theory, processing the auditory aspect of stimuli during encoding can cause a better memory at later test than processing the meaning of stimuli during encoding, if _____________. a. Levels of processing theory is not always correct. b. The test is made using the rhyming-questions (Does any word learnt rhymes with another word XXX?). c. The test is made using meaning-questions (Does any word learnt can fit in the blank of a given sentence?) d. Both A and B.

Both A and B.

* Apparently, immediately presenting the second list to the "no delay" group interrupted the forming of a stable memory for the first list. Based on this result, Muller and Pilzecker proposed the term _________, which is defined as the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption.

Consolidation

* ________ transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption.

Consolidation

* Which statement below is most closely associated with levels of processing theory? a. Information goes through sensory memory, then short-term memory, and finally encoded in long-term memory. b. Events that are repeated enough can influence our behavior, even after we have forgotten the original events. c. Retrieval performance is independent of the encoding procedure. d. Deep processing involves paying closer attention to the meaning of a stimulus than shallow processing, and results in better memory.

Deep processing involves paying closer attention to the meaning of a stimulus than shallow processing, and results in better memory.

* __________ processing involves close attention, focusing on an item's meaning and relating it to something else. According to levels of processing theory, ________ processing results in better memory than _________ processing

Deep; deep; shallow

* After subjects responded to the three types of questions in the levels of processing theory experiment, they were given a memory test to see how well they recalled the words. The results, shown in Figure 7.1b (make sure to see the figure) indicate that ___________ processing is associated with better memory.

Deepest (fill in the blank task)

* In Georg Muller and Alfons Pilzecker (1900), the "immediate" group learned one list of nonsense syllables and then immediately learned a second list. The "delay" group learned the first list and then waited for 6 minutes before learning the second list. When recall for the first list was measured, subjects in the _______ group remembered 48 percent of the syllables, but subjects in the __________ group remembered on 28 percent of the syllables.

Delay; immediate (no delay)

* Morris's experiment shows that deeper processing at encoding ______________ result in better retrieval, as proposed by levels of processing theory.

Does not always

* Apparently, students use highlighting and rereading because they are ________ and because they are not aware of more effective methods.

Easy to use

* When Peterson compared comprehension for a group of students who highlighted and a group who didn't, she found no difference between the performance of the two groups when they were tested on the material. Highlighting may be a good first step for some people, but it is usually important to go back over what you highlighted using techniques such as ____________ or ____________ in order to get that information into your memory.

Elaborative rehearsal; generating questions

* The principle of ______________ states that we encode information along with its context.

Encoding specificity

* When someone (not just Dr. J's wife) is currently upset, she can easily recall some old events that had made her upset. This is an everyday example of the _______________.

Encoding specificity (especially, the state-dependent learning)

* This contrast between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal is one example of how ________ can influence the ability to __________ memories.

Encoding; retrieval

* An early idea linking the type of _________ to _________, proposed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972), is called _______________ theory.

Encoding; retrieval; levels of processing

* Which of the following is a correct description regarding spacing effect? a. Spacing effect occurs for everyone (i.e., there is no one who can benefitted from massive study or cramming). b. Spacing effect occurs only when you believe it is better than cramming. c. Even when subjects believe that cramming works for them, for the most of the cases, spacing effect occurs (i.e., when they space out study times, they perform better) d. All of the above

Even when subjects believe that cramming works for them, for the most of the cases, spacing effect occurs (i.e., when they space out study times, they perform better)

* Another mechanism that create the illusion of learning is the __________ effect. Rereading cause material to become familiar, so when you encounter it a second or third time, there is a tendency to interpret this _________ as indicating that you know the material. Unfortunately, recognizing material that is right in front of you doesn't necessarily mean that you will be able to remember it later.

Familiarity

* One reason for the popularity of rereading as a study technique is that it can create the __________ that learning is occurring. This happens because reading and rereading material results in greater __________ - that is, repetition causes the reading to become easier and easier.

Illusion; fluency

* Katie and Inez are roommates taking the same psychology class. They have a test in four days during a 10:00 - 11:00 AM class period. Both women intend to study for three hours, but because of different work schedules and preferences, Katie will study one hour for each of the next three days, while Inez will study three hours the day before the exam. What could you predict about their performances?

Katie should perform better because of the spacing effect.

* Which procedure resulted in better memory - counting the number of vowels or rating an item's survival value? Nairne and coworkers found that _____________ created better memory.

Linking words to survival

* One of the outcomes of structural changes at the synapse is a strengthening of synaptic transmission. This strengthening results in a phenomenon called _________________ - enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation (Bliss & Lomo, 1973; Bliss et al., 2003; Kandel, 2001).

Long-term potentiation

* According to the levels of processing theory, which of the following tasks will produce the best long-term memory for a set of words? a. Deciding how many vowels each word has b. Generating a rhyming word for each word to be remembered c. Repeating the words over and over in your mind d. Making a connection between each word (specifically, its meaning) and something you've previously learned

Making a connection between each word (specifically, its meaning) and something you've previously learned

* According to the YouTube video regarding mnemonics, to improve one's memory, _________ is critical.

Making connections between the target information and something one already knows

* According to Craik & Tulving (1975) who did the levels-of-processing experiment, people remembered target words best when the questions (that proceeded the target words) were about ______.

Meaning (e.g., fit into the blank?)

* In Mantyla's experiment, participants saw many target words and generated three words related to each target word. Then, those three words were presented as a retrieval cue in later recall. Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the result? a. Participants could remember the majority of the target words during recall test if they were given the self-generated cues. b. Without the cues, participants could still remember some of the words but the performance is much poorer than in the cued condition. c. Neither self-generated nor others-generated cues were helpful for participants remembering the target words. d. Participants' performance during the recall dropped significantly when they were given the cues generated by others.

Neither self-generated nor others-generated cues were helpful for participants remembering the target words.

* In an experiment testing memory following different levels of processing, Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) presented words to subjects and asked them three different types of questions: 1. A question about the _________ features of the word. For example subjects see the word bird and are asked whether it is printed in capital letters. 2. A question about the _________. For example, subjects see the word train and asked if it rhymes with the word pain. 3. A fill-in-the-blanks question. For example, subjects see the word car and are asked if it fits into the sentence "He saw a ________ on the street."

Physical features; rhyming

* Which of the following is NOT a good study strategy for a better recall of course materials in test? a. Teaching the course materials. b. Forming vivid images associated with the course material. c. Connecting (applying) materials to oneself. d. Putting all study hours in one day immediately before the exam instead of spreading them across days.

Putting all study hours in one day immediately before the exam instead of spreading them across days.

* Subjects spontaneously organize items as they recall. One reason for this result is that remembering words in a particular category may serve as a _____________ - a word or other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory.

Retrieval cue

* Even though the term levels of processing is rarely used by present-day memory researchers, the basic idea behind levels of processing theory - that memory ___________ is affected by how items are _________- is still widely accepted.

Retrieval; encoded

* Depth of processing distinguishes between ___________ processing and ___________ processing. ___________ processing involves little attention to meaning, as when a phone number is repeated over and over or attention is focused on a word's physical features such as whether it is printed in lowercase or capital letters.

Shallow; deep; shallow

* The three types of questions in the levels of processing theory experiment were designed to create different levels of processing as below: (1) physical features = _________ processing (2) rhyming = _________ processing (3) fill in the blanks = ___________ processing

Shallow; deeper; deepest

* Another angle on taking breaks is provided by research that shows that memory performance is enhanced if _______ follows learning. Sleeping soon after studying can improve __________, which can result in better memory

Sleep; consolidation

* ____________ consolidation, which takes place over minutes or hours, involves structural changes at synapses. ___________ consolidation, which takes place over months or even years, involves the gradual reorganization of neural circuits within the brain.

Synaptic; systems

* The best way to prepare for Exam 2 of this course is to __________. a. Make a flashcard that shows terms and definitions b. Highlight and re-read textbook repeatedly c. Read the "Chapter Summary" provided in the textbook d. Test yourself by verbally answering the "test yourself" questions

Test yourself by verbally answering the "test yourself" questions

* Encoding specificity suggests that _______________.

The context of learning is encoded along with the material being learnt, and can facilitate retrieval of the material if one has the same context as the encoding at retrieval.

* Jenkins and Russell (1952) presented a list of words like "chair, apple, t-shirt, cherry, sofa, pants" to participants. In a test, participants recalled the words in a different order than the order in which they were originally presented. This result occurred because of __________________.

The spontaneous tendency of grouping items based on their categories.

* T/F: Bower and Winzenz presented a list of 15 pairs of nouns, such as boat-tree, to subjects for 5 seconds each. One group was told to silently repeat the pairs as they were presented, and another group was told to form a mental picture in which the two items were interacting.

True

* T/F: One of the main factors that determines whether you can retrieve information from LTM is the way that information was encoded when you learn it.

True

* According to the encoding specificity, background noise during test (i.e., retrieval) can improve your memory if ______________.

You had had the same noise during encoding.

* Which of the following memory effect was introduced in Chapter 7? a. Self-reference effect b. Generation effect c. Testing effect d. Spacing effect e. All of the above

all of the above

* When students are asked to describe their study techniques, the most popular are highlighting material in text or notes and rereading text or notes. Research has generally found that these popular techniques _________ very effective (Dunlosky et al., 2013).

are not

* Typically, this type of rehearsal (elaborative rehearsal) results in ________ memory than maintenance rehearsal.

better

* Mantyla's "banana / yellow, bunches, edible" experiment demonstrated that, for best memory performance, retrieval cues should be created ______________.

by the person whose memory will be tested.

* Donald Morris and coworkers (1977) did an experiment that showed that retrieval is better if the same ___________ are involved during both encoding and retrieval.

cognitive tasks

* When subjects were later given the first word and asked to recall the second one for each pair, the subjects who had ___________ remembered more than twice as many words as the subjects in the other condition.

created images

* According to levels of processing theory, memory depends on the ________ of processing that an item receives.

depth

* The idea of levels of processing motivated a great deal of research but became less popular when it became apparent that it was difficult to define exactly what _____________ of processing is.

depth

* The design of Rogers's experiment is shown in Figure 7.3a. Subjects read a question for 3 seconds and then saw a word. They answered "yes" if the word was the answer to the question such as "Describes you?" Rogers obtained the results shown in Figure 7.3b for words that resulted in a "yes" response. According to these results, subjects were more likely to remember words that they had rated as ______________.

describing themselves

* Elementary school students in the U.S. are often taught to use the very familiar word "HOMES" as a cue for remembering the names of the Great Lakes (each letter in "HOMES" provides a first-letter cue for one of the lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). This memory procedure usually works better than repeating the names over and over. The use of this familiar word provides an example of ________.

elaborate rehearsal.

* A process that helps transfer the material you are reading into long-term memory is ________ - thinking about what you are reading and giving it meaning by relating it to other things that you know.

elaboration

* If you are trying to remember numbers by considering meaning or making connections to other information, you are engaging in _________ rehearsal.

elaborative

* According to the levels of processing theory, memory durability depends on the depth at which information is __________.

encoded

* One of the main messages in this chapter is that some methods of _________ are more effective than others.

encoding

* The process of acquiring information and transferring it into LTM is called ____________.

encoding

* We will now describe three specific situations in which retrieval is increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions at encoding. One of the different ways to achieve matching are ___________ - matching the context in which encoding and retrieval occur.

encoding specificity

* People often report an annoying memory failure when they walk from one end of the house to the other for something and then forget what they went to retrieve when they reach their destination. As soon as they return to the first room, they are reminded of what they wanted in the first place. This common experience best illustrates the principle of _________.

encoding specificity.

* The principle that we encode information together with its context is known as ______.

encoding specificity.

* Acquiring information and transforming it into long-term memory is ___________ while transferring information from LTM to working memory is _________.

encoding; retrieval

* Although the enhanced ease of reading creates the illusion that the material is being learned, increased _______ doesn't necessarily translate into better memory for material.

fluency

* The story of the balloons suspending a speaker in the air was used to illustrate the critical role of _______ in memory.

forming connections with other information

* James Nairne (2010) proposes that we can understand how memory works by considering its _______, because, through the process of evolution, memory was shaped to increase the ability to survive.

function

* After either reading the pairs of words (read group) or generating the list of word pairs based on the word and first two letters of the second word (generate group), subjects were presented with the first word in each pair and were told to indicate the word that went with it. Subjects who had ________ the second word in each pair were able to reproduce 28% more word pairs then subjects who had just ________ the word pairs.

generated; read

* _____________ material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention.

generating

* In Slameka and Graf's (1978) study, some participants read word pairs (read group), while other participants had to fill in the blank letters of the second word so that the second word is related to the first word (generate group). The latter group performed better on a later memory task, illustrating the _______.

generation effect.

* Transfer-appropriate processing is like encoding specificity and state-dependent learning because it demonstrates that conditions during encoding and retrieval improves performance. But, in addition, the result of Morris experiment (1977) has important implications for the _______________ discussed earlier.

levels of processing theory

* The results (of Dr. G. Godden and Alan Baddeley's (1975) "diving experiment) show that the best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same __________.

location

* Consider, for example, holding a phone number in your memory by repeating it over and over. If you do this without any consideration of meaning or making connections with other information, you are engaging in __________ rehearsal.

maintenance

* Harry Grant and coworker experiment (1998) indicate that subjects did better when the testing condition (either quite or noise condition) ___________ the study condition (either quite or noise condition).

matched

* In the home office example of the author, the author needed to return to his office to retrieve his thought about taking a DVD to class. ... This example illustrates the following basic principle: retrieval can be increased by ________ the conditions at retrieval to the conditions that existed at encoding.

matching

* Levels of processing theory would predict that subjects who were in the _________ group during encoding would experience "deeper" processing, so they should perform better. Instead, the rhyming group performed better.

meaning

* We will now consider a number of other examples, many of which show that better memory is associated with encoding that is based on __________ and making connections.

meaning

* The goal of _______________ is to create a framework that helps relate some information to other information to make the material more meaningful and therefore strengthen encoding.

organizing

maintenance rehearsal typically results in...

poor memory

* Eric Eich and Janet Metcalfe (1989) demonstrated that memory is better when a person's mood during retrieval matches his or her mood during encoding. They did this by asking subjects to think __________ while listening to "merry" or happy music, or ___________ thoughts while listening to "melancholic" or sad music.

positive; depressing

* The maintenance rehearsal for learning new words (i.e., repeating it over and over again) is most likely to _______.

produce some short-term remembering, but fail to produce long-term memories.

* If presenting material in an organized way improves memory, we might expect that preventing organization from happening would _________ the ability to remember.

reduce

* You have been studying for weeks for a nursing school entrance exam. You love the idea of becoming a nurse, and you have been enjoying learning about the material for your exam. Each night, you put on relaxing clothes and study in the quiet of your lovely home. Memory research suggests you should take your test with a ________ mind set.

relaxed

* The process of _____________ is extremely important because many of our failures of memory are failures of _______________ - the information is "in there" but we can't get it out.

retrieval

* This process of transferring information from LTM to working memory is called _________.

retrieval

* Returning to the place where the textbook author had originally thought about taking a disk helped him to retrieve his original thought. His office served as a __________ for remembering what he wanted to take to class.

retrieval cue

* We defined ___________ as words or other stimuli that help us remember information stores in our memory.

retrieval cues

* __________________ effect refers to that memory is better if you are asked to relate a word yourself.

self-reference

* Jeannie loves to dance, having taken ballet for many years. She is now learning salsa dancing. Although the movements are very different from the dances she is familiar with, she has found a successful memory strategy of linking the new dance information to her previous experiences as a dancer and to her own affection for dance. This strategy suggests reliance on the ____________.

self-reference effect.

* Research has shown that many students believe that reviewing the material is more effective than testing themselves on it; when they do test themselves, it is to determine how they are doing, not as a tool to increase learning (Kornell & Son, 2009). As it turns out, ____________ accomplishes two things. It indicates what you know and increases your ability to remember what you know later.

self-testing

* The results of Timo Mantyla experiment indicated that when the __________-generated retrieval cues were presented, subjects remembered 91 percent of the words, but when the ___________-generated retrieval cues were presented, subjects remembered only 55 percent of the words.

self; other-person

* Saying "Take breaks" is another way of saying "Study in a number of ____________ study sessions rather than trying to learn everything at once," or "Don't cram."

shorter

* As shown in Figure 7.11, subjects who had focused on rhyming during encoding remembered more words than subjects who had focused on meaning (upon being tested through the rhyming task). Thus, subjects who had focused on the word's ___________ during the first part of the experiment did better when the test involved focusing on ___________.

sound; sound

* Research has shown that memory is better when studying is broken into a number of short sessions, with breaks in between, than when it is concentrated in one long session, even if the total study time is the same. This advantage for short study session is called the ____________.

spacing effect

* According to the principle of _________________, memory will be better when a person's internal state (mood or awareness) during retrieval matches his or her internal state during encoding.

state-dependent learning

* Another example of how matching the conditions at encoding and retrieval can influence memory is ___________________ - learning that is associated with a particular internal state, such as mood or state of awareness.

state-dependent learning

* We will now describe three specific situations in which retrieval is increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions at encoding. One of the different ways to achieve matching are ___________ - matching the internal mood present during encoding and retrieval. Question 7 options:

state-dependent learning

* Enhanced memory due to retrieval practice is called ___________ effect.

testing

* Why are subjects more likely to remember words they connect to themselves? One possible explanation is that the words become linked to something the subjects know well _________.

themselves

* We will now describe three specific situations in which retrieval is increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions at encoding. One of the different ways to achieve matching are ___________ - matching the task involved in encoding and retrieval.

transfer-appropriate processing

* Memory performance is enhanced if the type of task at encoding matches the type of task at retrieval. This is called _________.

transfer-appropriate processing.