Cognitive Psych Review 3

Deductive reasoning?

Deductive reasoning is a logical process in which a conclusion is drawn from a set of premises or assumptions that are known to be true. It moves from general statements to specific conclusions. For example, all humans are mortal, Socrates is a human, therefore Socrates is mortal. Is logic truth?

According to Patrick McGinnis, what is FOBO and how might you overcome it?

"fear of better options," which refers to the anxiety or indecision people feel when faced with a decision among multiple good options. According to Patrick McGinnis, FOBO can lead to decision paralysis and prevent people from making a choice or taking action.

How does the GI Joe fallacy affect reasoning?

-The GI Joe fallacy is a term used to describe the belief that "knowing is half the battle." It is based on the idea that having knowledge about a subject is equivalent to being skilled or competent in that subject. - a mistake people make when they think that just by knowing more information or having more knowledge about a topic, they can solve a problem or win an argument. However, just like how GI Joe battles were not won solely by having more information, solving real-world problems and winning arguments requires more than just having more knowledge.

What can affect our ability to accurately represent a problem?

1. Framing: The way a problem is presented or framed can influence how it is perceived and approached. For example, if a problem is framed in a negative way, people may be more likely to focus on potential losses rather than potential gains. Bias: Preexisting biases and beliefs can influence how a problem is perceived and represented. For example, confirmation bias can cause people to selectively focus on information that confirms their preexisting beliefs and ignore information that contradicts them. 2. Mental set: As mentioned earlier, mental set can cause people to approach problems in a particular way based on previous experience or knowledge. This can limit their ability to consider alternative solutions or perspectives. Working memory limitations: Working memory capacity can affect how much information a person can hold and manipulate at any given time. If a problem requires holding and manipulating a large amount of information, people with limited working memory capacity may struggle to accurately represent the problem. 3. Emotions: Emotional states can affect cognitive processing and problem-solving. For example, anxiety and stress can impair cognitive function and hinder problem-solving abilities.

How does expertise in a particular domain (e.g., chess) facilitate problem solving in that area?

1. Knowledge: Experts have a wealth of knowledge in their domain of expertise. This knowledge includes both declarative knowledge (knowledge about facts and concepts) and procedural knowledge (knowledge about how to do things). In the case of chess, experts have a deep understanding of the rules of the game, the strategies for different positions, and the patterns of play that can lead to success. Pattern recognition: Experts have the ability to recognize patterns and meaningful chunks of information that are not apparent to novices. In chess, experts can quickly recognize patterns in the board and identify moves that are likely to lead to a favorable outcome. 2. Rapid processing: Experts can process information more quickly than novices. They are able to filter out irrelevant information and focus on the key elements of a problem. This allows them to make decisions more quickly and efficiently than those who lack expertise. 3. Mental representation: Experts have a mental representation of their domain of expertise that allows them to organize information in a meaningful way. This representation makes it easier for them to remember information and apply it to new problems.

What are the three steps to successful analogical problem solving?

1. Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between the source story and the target problem. This step is the most difficult to achieve. 2. Mapping the correspondence between the source story and the target problem- e.g. connection elements in one story (dictator's fortress) to elements in the target problem (tumor) 3. Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem- e.g. generalizing from the many small groups of soldiers approaching the fortress from different directions to the idea of using many weaker rays that would approach the tumor from different directions

What are the steps of the Wallas Stage Model of the creative process

1. Preparation: The first stage involves gathering information, setting goals, and identifying the problem to be solved. This stage also involves developing a deep understanding of the problem and the factors that may influence its solution. Incubation: The second stage involves stepping away from the problem and allowing the mind to wander. This can involve taking a break or engaging in unrelated activities that allow the mind to relax and process information unconsciously. 2. Illumination: The third stage involves the sudden appearance of a new idea or insight. This stage is characterized by a "eureka" moment in which the solution to the problem becomes clear. 3. Verification: The fourth stage involves testing the idea or insight that emerged during the illumination stage. This involves evaluating the idea, refining it as needed, and verifying that it is a viable solution to the problem.

What are some evidence-based suggestions to help overcome academic procrastination?

1. Set specific and achievable goals: Set specific and achievable goals for each study session or assignment. This can help you stay focused and motivated. 2. Break tasks into smaller steps: Breaking larger tasks into smaller, more manageable steps can help make them seem less daunting and make it easier to get started. 3. Use a planner or schedule: Using a planner or schedule can help you plan your study sessions and stay organized. 4. Use a timer: Set a timer for a specific amount of time and work on a task for that amount of time. Taking regular breaks can help you stay focused and avoid burnout. 5. Eliminate distractions: Turn off your phone or put it on silent, close unnecessary tabs on your computer, and find a quiet place to work.

What is executive functioning and what processes does it entail?

1. Working memory: The ability to hold and manipulate information in your mind in order to complete a task. 2. Inhibition: The ability to control your impulses and ignore distractions in order to focus on the task at hand. 3. Cognitive flexibility: The ability to shift between different tasks or mental sets. 4. Task switching: The ability to switch between different tasks or mental sets quickly and efficiently. 5. Planning and organization: The ability to set goals, develop a plan to achieve them, and organize your time and resources to carry out that plan. 6. Time management: The ability to manage your time effectively and prioritize tasks based on their importance. 7. Problem solving: The ability to identify problems, generate potential solutions, evaluate those solutions, and choose the best one. 8. Decision making: The ability to make sound decisions based on available information and your own values and preferences.

Conditional reasoning

A form of logical thinking that involves evaluating information based on the relationship between two things and the premise that if one event occurs, then another event will occur. It is often called "if-then" reasoning.

What is a mental set?

A mental set is a tendency to approach a problem or situation in a particular way based on previous experience or knowledge. It involves a fixed mindset that limits a person's ability to consider alternative solutions or perspectives.

What is the difference between a premise and a conclusion?

A premise is a statement or proposition that serves as evidence or support for a conclusion. In other words, a premise is a statement that is used to build an argument or logical reasoning. A premise can be either true or false. A conclusion: A conclusion, on the other hand, is a statement that follows logically from one or more premises. It is the end result of an argument or logical reasoning.

What is a syllogism and what kind of reasoning does it illustrate?

A syllogism is a type of logical argument that uses deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two premises (or statements) that are assumed to be true. The reasoning it illustrates is deductive reasoning. Ex: Premise 1: All men are mortal. Premise 2: Socrates is a man. Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Abductive reasoning?

Abductive reasoning is which a plausible explanation is made for a set of observations or data. It involves making an educated guess or hypothesis based on incomplete information. For example, if a person notices a wet sidewalk outside and assumes it rained, that is an example of abductive reasoning. Ruling out possible solutions until the likely one is left

How does alief affect reasoning?

Aliefs can affect reasoning by biasing our perception, interpretation, and evaluation of information. For example, if someone has an alief that certain groups of people are dangerous or untrustworthy, they may be more likely to interpret ambiguous or neutral information as confirming that belief. This can lead to confirmation bias and a tendency to discount information that contradicts the alief.

What is an "incidental anchor" and how might it affect our decision making?

An incidental anchor is a reference point or piece of information that is irrelevant to the decision at hand, but still influences our judgments or choices. Choices such as negotiations, bargaining, or pricing.

How can analogies (or schemas) aid problem-solving? How does the Fortress problem and its variants illustrate analogical reasoning?

Analogies or schemas can aid problem-solving by providing a framework for understanding new problems based on past experiences or knowledge. When faced with a new problem, analogies can be used to identify similarities with a previously encountered problem and apply the same problem-solving strategy. This process is known as analogical reasoning.

According to Dan Ariely, what is asymmetric dominance and how does it affect decision making?

Asymmetric dominance is a phenomenon where an option becomes more attractive to people when it is compared to a less attractive option. This is also known as the decoy effect. It effects decision making bc ppl want better looking things

What is the availability heuristic and how is it related to processing fluency?

Availability heuristic is getting information that is right there for you, mental shortcut. It's related to processing fluency because people tend to use the availability heuristic when they lack more objective or reliable information about the frequency or likelihood of an event.

What is confirmation bias? How does this relate to belief perseverance?

Confirmation bias is when we look for information that aids our beliefs. Doing this, we ignore and downplay other information that contradicts our beliefs. Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to one's initial beliefs or opinions even in the face of contradictory evidence. Once a belief is formed, it can be difficult to change or modify, especially if it is strongly held or emotionally charged. This can be related to confirmation bias because people may actively seek out information that confirms their existing beliefs, and ignore or dismiss evidence that contradicts them.

What are heuristics?

Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that people use to make judgments or decisions quickly and efficiently. Heuristics can be thought of as mental "rules" or "strategies" that people use to simplify complex problems and reduce cognitive effort.

How is hindsight bias the opposite overconfidence?

Hindsight bias refers to the tendency for people to believe falsely, after an event has occurred, that they would have predicted or expected the outcome beforehand, whereas overconfidence refers to the tendency for people to overestimate their abilities or the accuracy of their beliefs and predictions.

What is the representative heuristic and how does base-rate fallacy and the conjunction fallacy relate to it?

In other words, people often rely on their intuition or subjective impressions of similarity rather than statistical probabilities or objective data. The base-rate fallacy occurs when people ignore or underweight the prior probability of an event or outcome in favor of more salient or vivid information. The conjunction fallacy is a related phenomenon in which people mistakenly believe that the co-occurrence of two specific events is more likely than the occurrence of either event alone, even when the conjunction is less probable.

Inductive reasoning?

Inductive reasoning is a process in which a conclusion is drawn from a set of observations or examples. It moves from specific observations to general conclusions. For example, if a person observes multiple red apples and concludes that all apples are red, that is an example of inductive reasoning. Probably true

What is an illusory correlation and how can the availability heuristic give rise to it?

It is a perceived relationship between two variables that does not actually exist. This can occur when people overestimate the association between two events or categories based on limited or incomplete information. People selectively attend to information that confirms their pre-existing beliefs or expectations. This can further reinforce the illusion of a correlation between two variables, even if there is no actual relationship between them.

How does mental accounting affect reasoning?

Mental accounting can also lead to loss aversion, which is the tendency to feel the pain of losses more than the pleasure of gains. For example, someone might be more upset about losing $100 from their savings account than they would be happy about gaining $100 in their checking account, even though the monetary value is the same.

What is the mere exposure effect and how could it affect our decision making?

People develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar with them. In other words, the more exposure we have to something, the more we tend to like it. It can influence our choices of products, brands, or even people. If we are exposed to a particular product or brand repeatedly, we may develop a preference for it even if we have no other information about it. Similarly, if we are repeatedly exposed to a person, we may develop a liking for them even if we have no other reason to do so.

Pros and cons of heuristics?

Pros: For example, if you see a group of people running towards a building and shouting, you might use the heuristic of assuming there is an emergency and follow them, Cons:can lead to errors and biases in judgment, particularly in complex or ambiguous situations where the heuristic may not be applicable or accurate. For example, the availability heuristic leads people to judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily they can recall similar events, rather than on objective statistics or probabilities.

What is the difference between recency and recognition of frequency judgments? Which judgment is linked to executive function?

Recency and recognition are two types of judgments made about events that have occurred. Recency refers to the judgment of how recently an event occurred, while recognition refers to the judgment of whether an event was previously encountered or not. Among the three types of judgments, frequency judgment is typically linked to executive function. This is because frequency judgments require attention, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, which are key components of executive function.

How can the atmosphere effect affect how you evaluate syllogisms?

Research has shown that the atmosphere, or mood, can affect how people evaluate syllogisms. Specifically, positive moods tend to lead people to accept more syllogisms as valid, while negative moods tend to lead people to reject more syllogisms as invalid.

What is the Dunning-Kruger effect? How is it related to the representativeness heuristic?

The Dunning-Kruger effect is a cognitive bias where people with low ability or expertise in a particular domain tend to overestimate their competence in that domain. Conversely, people with high ability or expertise tend to underestimate their competence. Related to representative heuristic because it is judging events on the likelihood of stereotypes, so people can do this to others and themselves.

What is the Tower of London and how does it differ from the Tower of Hanoi?

The Tower of London is a neuropsychological test used to assess planning ability and problem-solving skills. It involves a board with three pegs of different heights and a set of colored discs of different sizes. the Tower of Hanoi is a mathematical puzzle game consisting of three pegs and a series of discs of different sizes.

How does wason task illustrate reasoning for conditional syllogisms?

The Wason Selection Task illustrates the difficulty that people often have in reasoning about conditional syllogisms. Specifically, people tend to focus on information that confirms their initial beliefs or hypotheses, rather than seeking out information that could disconfirm them. This is known as confirmation bias, and it can lead people to overlook important information or make faulty inferences.

What is the wason selection task?

The Wason Selection Task is a classic experimental paradigm used to investigate reasoning about conditional syllogisms. In this task, participants are presented with four cards, each with a letter on one side and a number on the other. The experimenter tells the participant that each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other, and that the rule is: "If a card has a vowel on one side, then it must have an even number on the other side."

What are the similarities between deductive, inductive and abductive reasoning?

The main similarity between these forms of reasoning is that they are all used to draw conclusions based on available information.

Sunk cost effect?

The sunk cost effect is a related phenomenon where people are reluctant to abandon a project or investment that they have already sunk time, money, or effort into, even if it no longer makes sense to continue. This is because people often feel that they have already invested too much to quit, and that quitting would mean losing all of their investment.

Cognitive perspective for procrastination?

This perspective suggests that procrastination may be related to executive dysfunction, particularly in the prefrontal cortex of the brain. Executive dysfunction can impair an individual's ability to plan, organize, and initiate tasks, which can result in procrastination. Additionally, procrastination may be related to the interplay between the brain's reward system and the ability to delay gratification.

Social Psychology perspective for procrastination?

This perspective suggests that procrastination may be related to social and environmental factors, such as fear of failure, low self-esteem, and lack of motivation. Procrastination may also be reinforced by external factors such as a lack of accountability, rewards for procrastination, and an overreliance on social media or other distractions.

According to Dan Ariely, what explains why some countries have more organ donors than others?

This suggests that people are more likely to stick with the default option, rather than actively choosing a different option. opt-out refers to a system where individuals are automatically enrolled or a decision is made for them, unless they actively choose to opt-out. Opt out is used to encourage desired behavior from advertisers.

How does one solve problems through trial-and-error?

Trial-and-error is a problem-solving method in which a person tries multiple solutions until they find one that works. This method involves testing various possibilities, and then refining the approach based on feedback from each attempt.

What is the difference between a well-defined and ill-defined problem?

Well defined problem is a problem that has a clear and specific goal, and a known solution. An ill defined problem is a problem that lacks clear goals, and solutions.

What is environmental dependency syndrome? Which of Kahneman's decision making systems does it appear related to?

a condition in which individuals are highly susceptible to external cues and stimuli, leading to automatic and unintentional actions in response to their environment. EDS appears to be related to System 1 thinking, as described in Daniel Kahneman's dual-process theory of decision-making.

What is functional fixedness?

a person is unable to see an object or problem beyond its typical use or function. It is the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use or function, and to overlook its other potential uses. Ex: They may overlook its potential as a paperweight, doorstop,

What is the "working backward" problem-solving strategy? What is an example to illustrate this strategy?

a person starts with the desired outcome or goal and then works backwards to determine the steps needed to achieve it. Ex: a person needs to plan a budget for a vacation. Instead of starting with the available budget and trying to fit activities within it, the person can start by identifying the desired activities and working backwards to determine the budget required to achieve them.

What is means-end analysis? How does the Tower of Hanoi illustrate means-end analysis?

a problem-solving strategy that involves breaking a problem down into smaller sub-goals, or "means," and identifying the steps that can be taken to reach those sub-goals, or "ends." the person must first identify the goal state, which is to have all the disks stacked on a different peg in the same order. Then, the person must identify the differences between the current state and the goal state, which are the locations of the disks and the order in which they are stacked. Next, the person must identify the sub-goals or "means" that can be used to reduce the differences between the current state and the goal state. This might involve moving a smaller disk on top of a larger one, or moving a disk from one peg to another. The person must then identify the steps needed to achieve these sub-goals or "ends," and work to execute them in a systematic way.

What is the Wisconsin Card Sort task and how might it reflect executive dysfunction?

a test that is commonly used to assess the ability to set, maintain, and shift mental sets in response to changing environmental contingencies. In the task, participants are presented with a series of cards and asked to match them to one of four reference cards, using an unknown sorting rule. Executive dysfunction can be reflected in the participant's inability to switch mental sets and adapt to the changing rules of the task. For example, they may continue to sort the cards based on the old rule even after it has changed, or they may struggle to form a new rule altogether.

What is an algorithm?

an algorithm is a step-by-step procedure or set of rules that are used to solve a specific problem. Algorithms are commonly used in cognitive psychology to describe how people solve problems and make decisions.

What is insight? What area of the brain is associated with insight?

insight refers to a sudden and often surprising solution to a problem or a new understanding of a situation that was not apparent before. Insight can be seen as a sudden realization or a "lightbulb moment" in which the solution to a problem becomes clear. Insight has been associated with activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the right hemisphere of the brain.

How does the Wallas Stage Model relate to insight?

it is closely related to insight because the illumination stage is often characterized by a sudden burst of understanding or a new way of thinking about the problem. During this stage, the person may experience a sense of clarity or a feeling of "seeing the problem in a new light".

How can the Stroop task be used to measure executive function?

it requires individuals to inhibit their automatic response (i.e., reading the word) and instead focus on the task-relevant information (i.e., the color of the ink). This process of inhibiting automatic responses is thought to be an important aspect of cognitive control, which is a key component of executive function.

How does loss aversion affect reasoning

loss aversion can lead people to make risk-averse decisions, even when taking risks may be in their best interest. It can also lead people to hold onto things they already have, even if it no longer makes sense to do so.

How does the fortress problem illustrate analogical reasoning?

one variant of the Fortress problem involves capturing a checkers board by moving pieces according to specific rules. Analogical reasoning can be used to draw parallels between the movement of pieces in checkers and the movement of troops in the Fortress problem. By identifying these similarities, the problem solver can apply the same strategy used in checkers to capture the fortress.

What is the endowment effect and how could it affect our decision making?

people to assign more value to an object or item simply because they own it or possess it, compared to when they do not own it. This means that people often demand more to give up an object than they would be willing to pay to acquire it. It can lead us to overvalue possessions we already own, which may make it difficult to sell or part with them, even if it makes logical sense to do so. It can also lead us to pay more for something simply because we believe we will eventually own it, which can lead to overspending or irrational financial decisions.

Which brain area is typically associated with executive function?

prefrontal cortex

How can procrastination be explained by an evolutionary perspective?

procrastination may have been adaptive in the past when humans were faced with immediate threats that required immediate action. In these situations, delaying action could increase the chances of survival by allowing individuals to gather more information or resources before taking action.

System 2

slower thinking, Effortful, deliberate controlling our thoughts has advantages to see things differently than in system one.

How is abductive reasoning related to the strategy to overcome FOBO for high-stakes decisions?

suggests using abductive reasoning, which involves making an educated guess based on incomplete information and then testing it. This allows you to move forward with a decision and see how it plays out, rather than getting stuck in analysis paralysis.

Hoes does the peak-end effect affect reasoning?

the effect describes how people tend to judge experiences based on the peak moment(s) and the ending, rather than the overall experience. the peak-end effect can affect how people perceive and remember events. For example, someone may remember a vacation as being fantastic because it ended with a great sunset, even if the rest of the trip was mediocre. This bias can also lead to inaccurate assessments of experiences, as people may focus on the peaks and endings rather than the actual experience.

What is the difference between a categorical and conditional syllogism?

the main difference between categorical and conditional syllogisms is the type of statement used as premises. Categorical syllogisms use categorical statements, while conditional syllogisms use conditional statements.

System 1

thinking fast, this system comes up automatically no control, involuntary intuitive this is cognitive ease

What is subtraction neglect and how is it related to a focusing illusion?

which people focus on the differences between two options, rather than the absolute value of each option. For example, imagine you are offered a job with a salary of $50,000 per year. Ex: You are then told that your colleagues at a comparable company make an average of $60,000 per year. Despite the fact that $50,000 is a good salary, you may feel dissatisfied or undervalued because you are focusing on the difference between your salary and your colleagues' salaries. Related to illusion: which is the tendency to overemphasize the importance of a particular aspect of a situation and overlook other relevant factors.