Cognitive Psychology 322 - Final Exam 4 (Syracuse University)

What is an example of Gestalt's law of similarity?

We like to group things that are similar, by size shape or color. All blue items with blue.

Which of the following is true about Helmholtz's theory of unconscious inference?

We perceive the object that is most likely to have caused the pattern of stimuli we have received. Helmholt believes that people perceive based on their experiences in life. He mentions the likelihood principle which states that "we perceive the object that is most likely to have caused the pattern of stimuli that we have received"

What is the reminiscence bump?

When people in the age range of 40 are asked to recall events in their lives: memory seems to be high for recent events and for events that occurred in adolescence and early adulthood. (10-30 years)

What is the stroop test?

a standard measure of effortful control over responses, requiring participants to identify the color of a word which spells out a different color. Emphasis on controlled processing rather than automatic processing.

What is free recall?

a testing condition in which a person is asked to remember information without explicit retrieval cues.

What is cued recall?

a testing condition in which people are given an explicit retrieval cue to help them remember

Which of the following is not considered a bottom up determinant of eye movement?

a)characteristic of the stimuli b)color and motion c) areas that stand out and capture attention d)scene schema: is knowledge about what is contained in typical scenes. This is considered a top down determinant of eye movement.

Encoding

acquiring info into memory.

What is spreading activation?

activity that spreads out along any link that is connected to an activated node

The change blindness describes the situation when two versions of a picture are shown in quick succession, __________ between them __________ immediately apparent.

b)differences, are not. The change blindness rules states that if two versions of a picture are shown, differences between them are not immediatelyapparent.

What is the primacy effect?

better recall for items at the beginning of a list

FPOT

frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

What is the generation effect?

generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention

According to Blakemore and Cooper (1970), cats that were only exposed to horizontal stripes could detect...

horizontal lines, but not vertical lines. Since the cat was only exposed to hortizonal lines it's brain developed to only see hortizonal lines.

While driving back to school, you pass by an undercover state police officer in an ice- cream truck. You get pulled over and receive a speeding ticket. Now every time you see an ice-cream truck while driving you get a feeling of anxiousness. What is the conditioned stimulus in this situation?

ice-cream trucks The conditioned stimulus is something that was previously a neutral stimulus but now results in a conditioned response, because of it's association with the unconditioned stimulus. Previously seeing an ice-cream truck didn't spark any anxious feelings in you, but now it does because you now associate it with the speeding ticket you got. Option B is the correct answer because seeing the an ice-cream truck is the conditioned stimulus that causes you to react with nervous feelings.

Misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

Reaction time refers to the time between ________ of a stimulus and a person's response to it.

presentation.

What is consolidation?

process that transforms new memories into a state in which they are more resistant to disruption. Practicing something (sport, art technique, studying a math formula) for a period of time, keeps this process in your long-term memory.

What is the encoding specificity principle?

recall is better if the retrieval context is similar to the encoding context. Presence of context can lead to enhanced memory for the info.

What is covert attention?

shifting attention without moving the eyes, this is called pre-cueing.

What is repeated recall?

technique of comparing later memories to memories collected immediately after the event. Talarico & Ruben (03), recalled inaccurate info in testing 9/11 participants.

Where is Wenicke's area located?

temporal lobe

What is the modal model of memory?

the idea that memory has three separate components: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

What is the typical course of forgetting?

-Messages are unattended to (we forget them) -We filter them out (we forget them) -We spend little to no time rehearsing/chunking/ to encode them (we forget them) -When we wait to long to retrieve, spend no time attending to the messages, we forget.

What is the cognitive theory in regards to the concept, reminiscence bump (vivid memory young and recent)?

Encoding is better during periods of rapid change that is followed by stability (EX. immigrating to the US at a young age, vivid memory of this).

FB

Frontal lobe Brocca's Area

TW

Temporal lobe = FFA and PPA

cahill, & gorski, found what sort of result when they paired emotional stimuli with memory recollection?

They found that more people were more likely to recall info when they were emotionally involved with the info.

What is anterograde amnesia?

inability to form new memories

What is retrograde amnesia?

Inability to remember events that occurred before the incidence of trauma

What is a flashbulb memory?

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. Remembering where you were, and how you felt from this memory like -Obama becoming president -9/11

What is Korsakoff's syndrome?

patient makes up stories to fill in time gaps-not really lying though, they're disoriented to time also

What is overt attention?

when we consciously attend to info by using our eyes.

What did Rosch argue about "family resemblence" of the theory of protypicality?

"natural semantic categories are viewed as networks of overlapping attributes, and some members are typically higher when they have high resemblance to the "family"/category."

How did Ebbinghaus measure the amount of information retained in memory?

(Original time to learn list) - (time to relearn list after delay). You take the amount of time that it took you to memorize the first list. Then you subtractthattime bythetimeittookyoutorelearnthelistafteradelayof,say,1 hour.

What is Wernicke's aphasia?

-Characterized by temporal lobe damage resulting in impaired auditory comprehension and feedback -They do NOT have fluent, well-articulated paraphasic speech (word substitution errors, don't make much sense)

In the figure below, which retention interval range would show the smallest change in percent savings between:

6-31 days The savings curves shows that forgetting occurs rapidly at first and then more slowly over time.

Cognitive economy

A feature of some semantic network models in which properties of a category that are shared by many members of a category are stored at a higher level node in the network. For example, the property "can fly" would be stored at the node for "bird" rather than at the node for "canary."

All of the following are examples of implicit memories except: A) remembering where you were when you learned to ride a bike B) performing dance moves without having to think about it C) being able to drive without conscious thought D) unconsciously associating food eaten prior to chemotherapy with the nausea that follows chemotherapy

A is an example of episodic memory which is explicit. Implicit - "unconscious" "without thinking" "without conscious thought": procedural memory.

Which of the following is not an example of artificial intelligence?

A toaster is not a machine that imitates human behaviors that people would consider intelligent, if person displayed those same behaviors. Self driving cars, Alexa, and Siri are all examples of artificial intelligence because they imitate human behaviors. Self driving cars possess "intelligence" because they are able to process and perform the complex task of driving a car. Alexa and Siri are also examples because they imitate human qualities by processing information and responding.

According to the class lectures, what is the best explanation for memories of being abducted by aliens?

Alien abductions memories are false. The memoryâ of alien abduction is due to waking up during sleep paralysis. Memory is a constructive process. If someone wakes up before the sleep paralysis part of REM sleep is over, they will be paralyzed. Offen times these people have vivid memories of being attacked by demons or abducted by aliens. These are caused by hallucinations from sleep paralysis.

What is the exemplar approach to categorization?

Approach in which members of a category are judged against other examples of members of the category that the person has encountered in the past.

Which theory best solves the cocktail effect?

Attenuation Theory This model of memory allows new info to be processed by using a dial of thresholds that are activated on the basis of prior knowledge. "Name has higher thresholds than house."

Why are conjunction searches more difficult than feature searches?

Because conjunction searches depend on both automatic and controlled processes, whereas feature searches depend on the automatic processes.

Why did behaviorism have a negative impact on the growth of cognitive psychology?

Behaviorism stated that it was unscientific to explain behaviors in terms of what the person did (internally) with the information presented in the stimulus before they responded.

When given the category "Bird", what word would be more likely to be retrieved faster according to the prototype approach?

Bluejay. It has a high-prototypicality. This means it more closely resembles the category and will therefore be retrieved faster.

In the generation effect, what did the experimenters find for condition 2 compared to condition 1 after the delay in retrieval of memory?

Condition 2 group had better long-term results in testing because they generated material themselves to understand the concepts more than condition 1.

What is the term used to describe why chemotherapy can cause food aversions?

Conditioning. Patients are conditioned to feel nauseous towards food as a result of pairing food with chemotherapy.

False memories are common because memory is a ______ process.

Constructive. Memory is a constructive process where we fill in holes after the memory has been made. It is at this point many false memories can be made.

Selfridge's Pandemonium model of perception cannot explain...

Context effects in perception. Pandemonium was unable to explain how our perception can be influenced by context, because the information only flows from lower level features to higher level ones (e.g., letters).

Why was the invention of cooking so important for the evolution of humans?

Cooking helped us pre-digest food with heat, making the absorption of food more efficient, thus providing more energy to support neurons in the human brain.

You are trying to remember a series of words, according to the levels of Processing theory which of the following is the best tool to aid in this memorization?

Creating a story around the word. According to the Levels of Processing theory, the more deeply you process a word, the more likely you are to remember the word.

What is the cultural life script theory in regards to the concept, reminiscence bump (vivid memory young and most recent)?

Culturally shared expectations structured recall. (EX. memory is vivid when events fit in to their own self-identified culture, or life cultural script. - Not knowing what happened in another country, but knowing how/when you felt during an event in the US).

What is Brocca's aphasia?

Damage to the FB (Frontal lobe, Broccas area). Difficulty forming complete sentences. "Mr Tan" as an example. Could say some words but kept saying "ba ba ba".

What is the phonological loop?

Deals w/ auditory info, both written and spoken. Preserves the order info arrives. 2 Parts: Phonological Store Articulatory Process

What was the result of retrieval practice?

Deliberate recollection of knowledge of "what we already know" retrieval of memory. According to Roediger*, the testing group that did better as time went on used this method "Retrieval practice every so often".

The type of attention where one pays attention to multiple things at a time is known as?

Divided Attention

In the car scenario, which condition was more likely to miss the stop light and why?

Driving and talking on the "hands free' speaker phone. Divided attention states that our capacity to drive is a high load, and talking is another high load of capacity. Both require high loads of attention therefore, missing a light is more likely to happen in this scenario. We're incapable of multi-tasking while trying to fully perceive the task at hand with high-load capacity things.

All of the following are true about hierarchical semantic networks EXCEPT: Nodes represent concepts. Exceptions occur at higher nodes. "IS A" links represent categorical relationships. Properties are specific to the concept they branch off of.

Exceptions occur at higher nodes. -- as lower level items share properties of higher level items. Higher level items do not include the properties below them.

Are Eyewitness testimonies usually a reliable form of evidence?

Eyewitness testimony can be unreliable because memory is a constructive process, meaning it can easily lead to errors or even completely false memories.

What is a mental map? And what theory does this belong to?

FRom the FIT theory, a mental map is a person's point-of-view perception of their area of interaction.

Wade, Garry, Read, and Lindsay's (2002) hot air balloon photograph experiment showcased which phenomenon about memory?

False/impossible memory. Their experiment involved showing a fictitious photograph of one in a hot air balloon and the results showed that 20% of people who were shown this fabricated photograph recalled a fictitious balloon ride that never actually occurred.

What does the Stroop effect demonstrate?

Familiarity with a word can interfere with saying the color of its ink. We cannot avoid paying attention to the meaning of a word.

What is FIT?

Feature Integration Theory which includes OPFT Object Pre-Attentive Stage Focused Attention Perception

What is a feature map? What theory does this belong to?

From FIT theory, a feature map is an automatic process and does not require active attention. It allows the brain to detect charcteristics of things/objects/colors/shapes/ to identify a whole object.

What is the attenuator?

From Treisman's Attentuation theory, this system identifies the strength of words and meanings trying to select which word/meaning should be attended to more. "name" has a higher strength.

What is the visuo-spacital sketchpad responsible for?

From the working memory, this system is responsible for only visual or spatial. "painting a flower, you have to keep looking back at it to store this in your LTM.

Where is Brocca's area located?

Frontal lobe

What type of brain imaging concerns blood flow‚ whether there's an increase or decrease in blood flow to certain areas of the brain?

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

What is the serial position curve?

Graph depicting both primacy and recency effects on people's ability to recall items on a list.

Which of the following is an example of retrograde amnesia?

Having a head injury and not being able to remember your last birthday. Retrograde amnesia occurs after a traumatic head injury affects one's ability to remember old memories.

What did Clive Wearing lose after his Amnesia?

He lost episodic memory (events from his past and future) and priming memory (ability to activate one stimulus with things associated with this - type of memory that allows us to interpret words or link them from previous knowledge).

What could Clive Wearing recall from after his onset of Amnesia?

He preserved some episodic memory (semantic), and implicit (procedural and automatic). Things like "loving his wife - but not remembering why" and "playing the piano and singing - but now remembering how". Walking, talking and writing.

What ability was preserved in Clive's memory?

His ability to speak and working memory. Clive still had a functioning working memory and still had the ability to speak. However, he could not remember when Deborah came into the room earlier and he would also not remember seeing his journal. When he saw Deborah or his journal, to him, it felt like it was the first time seeing both Deborah and his journal.

Implanting false memory

Hyman, Husband and Billings (1995). Procedure: Presented true events (attending a party) - Later recollection implanted false event (spilling bunch bowl) - 3 interviews across a series of time. First Interview - 0% remember the event. Third interview - By the third time, when asked, 25% remember the event and made a story up about it.

What is a conjunction?

In Psychology, this is used to actively (controlled processing) and unconsciously (automatic processing) perceive things (shapes, colors, places, people etc).

What did Sperling's experiment about sensory memory find?

In his experiment, 2 conditions were measured. He found that the first condition (memorizing letters within a second) could be remembered with sensory memory (stored in STM). In condition 2, he paired buzzers with the column of letters and tested memory by randomly selecting the column of recall. He found that the most recent column of memory was usually remembered but if the recall involved a bit of time to recall, sensory memory (images) could not collect the data to be remembered.

What are the advantages of simulation?

It clarifies assumptions. It makes explicit predictions independent of researcher. It makes evaluations of complex theories tractable

Which of these is NOT an episodic memory?

Knowing 9/11 happened is an example of semantic general knowledge and is not the best answer for knowing about a particular episode.

In long term memory, which theory argues that deep or shallow processing of memory determines what memories are stored in long term memory, preferably favoring deep processing as better for memory?

Levels of processing Theory

What is an example of Gestalt's law of good continuation?

Lines tend to follow the smoothest path, lines in a drawing

What does the dictionary unit do?

Located on as the 3rd process of TAT, this process holds many words that have high/low dials.

What is the order of Broadbent's Filter Model?

MSFDM messages -->sensory memory -->filter -->detector -->to memory Messages are received and held in the sensory memory for a fraction of a second. Messages are transferred to the filter where only the attended messages "filters through" to the detector. The detector processes the higher-level meaning of the message, which is then stored in your long term memory.

In Keppel's (1964) experiment, how did massed practice compare with distributed practice?

Massed practice had better recall initially but after time recall was worse than distributed. Massed practice is basically cramming information in a short period of time and recall would be worse after time.

Where does binding occur in the FIT theory?

Occurs in the Focused Attention stage. To perceive an object, binding and conjunctions are used to perceive something.

What were the results of Cherry's dichotic listening experiments?

Participants could not report the content of the message in the unattended ear.However, theunattendedearisbeingprocessedatsomelevel. In these initial dichotic listening experiment, participants were able to shadow the message through the ear they were attending. In Cherry's experiment, they could hear that there "were sounds in the unattended ear but were unaware of the contents of the message"

You are looking at a collection of red and blue circle in a blue column then red column formation. Which of the Gestalt principles of perceptual organization would predict that you perceive the dots as grouped by columns rather than rows?

Principle of Similarity. The Principle of similarity describes the tendency to group things that appear similar together. Hence the everyday phrase "like goes with like".

A recipe would be an example of:

Process model represents processes involved in cognitive mechanisms, much like the steps outlined in a recipe

Are primacy effects faster recall than recency effects?

Recency effects are typically faster.

A person with prosopagnosia is most likely to struggle with what?

Recognizing faces. Prosopagnosia is a condition in which a person has great difficulty recognizing people's faces.

What is the inverse projection problem?

Refers to the task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina.

Which mechanism is most useful with retrieving memories from LTM?

Remembering words using self-generated retrieval cues. Making your own self-generated retrieval cues helps the most for retrieving memories from LTM (increases performance the most).

Which of the following is true about the McGurk Effect ?

Seeing influences what you hear. Sometimes, perception can be influenced by context.

What hypothesis describes the following: the idea that memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person's self image or life identity is being formed.

Self-image hypothesis. As you age, you are more likely to remember things from adolescent years because this is the time you "find yourself" and understand your own self image. This is one of the explanations for the reminiscence bump.

Which of the following is NOT an example of implicit memory?

Semantic memory is a form of explicit memory whereas the other three examples are implicit. Semantic memory is form of declarative knowledge that is not tied to a particular time or place. The other three examples are examples of implicit memory. Implicit memory - Procedural memory, Priming, and Conditioning.

Which of the following words describes general knowledge?

Semantic. Semantic is general knowledge, episodic is knowledge of particular episodes, and procedural is knowing how to do skills.

What is false of hierarchical semantic networks?

Shared properties are only stored at the lowest -level nodes. D is the wrong answer because for hierarchical semantic networks, the shared properties are only stored at the higher-level nodes due to cognitive economy.

What is an example of Gestalt's law of simplicity?

Singing the Olympic 5 ring symbol, we see 5 circles not 132 different shapes.

What is the main conclusion from Blakemore & Cooper's kitten experiment?

Some aspects of visual perception are acquired rather than innate. The demonstrated that even the ability to see vertical and horizontal lines depend on experience. A is false because the cats can see vertical lines. C is false because the cats were not tested on human faces.

Which coding mechanism would be most susceptible to neural damage?

Specificity coding uses a single specialized neuron that responds only to that object. If the specialized neurons get damaged, there will be no way to represent that object anymore. Population coding uses a large number of neurons to represent an object. Because more that one neuron represents and object, even if some of those neurons are destroyed it is still possible to represent the object.

What is the likelihood principle according to Helmholtz?

States that "we perceive the object that is most likely to have caused the pattern of stimuli that we have received from past experience."

Which combination had the best result in the Godden & Baddeley experiment that had a group of participants study underwater and another group of participants study on land?

Study on land and test on land. it is the easiest to retrieve a memory in the same environment where it was learned. Memory retrieval is effective to the extent that the context of encoding corresponds to the context of retrieval.

Roediger and Karpicke's experiment where subjects read passages showed this result about memory retrieval:

Subjects that were tested after reading the passage had the strongest memory trace and were best able to retrieve information from the passage days later. Retrieval of a memory is best after retrieving that information.

What is Triesman's attenuation theory?

TAT is theory about how our brain operates in regards to attention. This theory argues that we attend to messages by dial thresholds, in which we pay more attention to words that are common as well as unfamiliar based on our previous experiences.

What is the narrative rehearsal hypothesis?

That essentially, repeated viewing/hearing of event on the TV, from a newspaper, on the radio, or talking with others about the story, could introduce errors in their own memory of the event.

What is the central executive responsible for?

The CE is located in the working memory, and is responsible for navigating where we will process information between the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial processing.

What would happen to the reaction time of finding a specific localization, if we increased the number of "distractions" on a grid?

The RT of finding the localization would become slower because we would need more time to provide focused attention using Conjunctions. Anything with conjunctions takes a longer reaction time.

What is the difference between the definitional approach and the prototypical approach?

The definitional approach works to find a general definition for a category, whereas the prototypical approach depends on family resemblances. The definitional approach defines a category, like a chair for example as having 4 legs. The prototypical approach categorizes a thing based on a thing's similarity to an average representation of a category's members.

According to Forester and Lavie "puppy and letters" experiment, in which condition will our reaction time will be slower? The easy or hard condition?

The easy condition (xxxNxxx) will have a slower reaction time when the puppy is added as a distraction of attention. The perceptual load capacity says that the easy condition allows only a low-load of attention, allowing for easy distractions because of the low need of attention. The inclusion of the "puppy" then slows the RT because of the low-load capacity.

Which part of the brain contains a region that responds selectively to faces?

The fusiform face area is located in the temporal lobe.

What is the mismatch theory in evolutionary psychology?

The idea that things we, humans, some things may have been useful in different environments throughout evolutionary history, but may not be so useful now.

Which of the following is the primary receiving area for vision?

The occipital lobe is the primary receiving area for vision.

Based on these fruits (apple, grape, cocoa nut, or olive) which fruit would be have slowest RT?

The olive because it is not a fruit but may look like one, most uniquely questionable and requires more thought, but is NOT a fruit.

In Loftus' experiment, she used the words 'smashed' or 'hit' when describing a car accident to participants. The ones who heard 'smashed' assumed there was more of a chance of broken glass and the car was going faster. This is an example of..

The power of suggestion. Loftus using these words to describe the scenario suggests to the participants what may have happened or how it'll look. In contrary to the participants who heard 'smashed' the ones who heard 'hit' assumed there was less of a chance of broken glass and the cars were going a slower speed, due to the word being less 'violent' seeming.

When viewing the Olympic Rings as continuous circles instead of being divided, you are using which level of perceptual organization?

The principle of good continuation and the principle of simplicity. The principle of simplicity states that you view every stimulus pattern so that the resulting structure is as simple as possible. The principle of good continuation also contributes to perceiving the Olympic rings as circles.

What is the new memory we now include?

The working memory. Responsible for being the middle-man of LTM and STM.

What is Receny Effect?

This means we tend to remember things that are most recent or last.

Being able to perceive a blurred image better after seeing them clearly illustrates...

Top down processing. "one way to illustrate how top down processing is involved in perception is to consider examples of situations in which perception is influenced by factors in addition to the bottom-up information." (page 59)Figure 3.11 illustrates the effect of context by showing how the blob can be seen as a foot of a person riding a bicycle, or the hand of a person on a table. If we only use bottom-up processing ,we would perceive the blob in only one way.

What is TAT?

Treisman's Attentuation Theory of Memory