Cognitive Psychology Exam 3
Suppose we ask people to perform the following cognitive tasks. Which is MOST likely to strongly activate the visual cortex? -Imagine the meaning of the word ethics -Imagine the sound of your phone ringing -Imagine a typical unsharpened pencil. Approximate its length in inches. -Imagine the feel of a cat licking your cheek
Imagine a typical unsharpened pencil. Approximate its length in inches.
______________ Approach to Categorization: An abstract representation of the typical or average member of a category ie: man, person -Categorization is based on determining how similar an object is to the standard representation of the category -We have only one representation of a category in our mind and we compare all new examples to it to decide what they are -Has a weighted average of the important features of category members -Has characteristic features that describe what members of that category are "like" without describing any one example -AVERAGE of category members encountered in past -Contains the most important features (ignores atypical features) True of most (not all) instanced of that category
Prototype
Category member does not closely resemble category prototype
Low-prototypicality
What is the abbreviation for misleading postevent information?
MPI
mental movement in the absence of overt action. ie:which way should you turn the lid to open a jar of pickles?
Motor Imagery
Yerkes-Dodson _________ Hypothesis -Exactly how arousal/emotion impacts memory is complicated by things like task difficulty and exactly how arousing the info is -Where peak performance is depends on task
"Inverted-U"
Lindsay and Johnson misinformation with recognition vs source identification test (1989): 1. Participants witnessed an event -slide of clutter office scene 2. Exposure to MPI -narrative describing the scene -no MPI (control):included only items in the slide -MPI (misled):included some items not in the slide 3. RECOGNITION MEMORY TEST for items in the slide -List of items in the slide & items only suggested -Say "yes" only to those that were in the slide 3. SOURCE IDENTIFICATION TEST -List of items in the slide & items only suggested -For each decide: only in slide, only in narrative, in both, in neither -Makes source very salient What were the findings?
RECOGNITION MEMORY TEST: HIGH misinformation effect for MPI group -Two confusable sources:slide/narrative and same context/experimenter. People likely imagined the slide when reading narrative embedding MPI (items that could be seen in an office ie:calculator), into real scene, which made them confident enough not to question their source of memory. Lower criteria for saying saw it SOURCE IDENTIFICATION TEST NO misinformation effect -Since people were made more aware of possible sources for their memory, they examine memory more closely helps them be more accurate.. Higher criteria for saying info was in slides.
How is the exemplar approach to categorization different from prototype view?
Representation is not a single abstract "average" rather many specific examples
How is the exemplar approach to categorization similar to prototype view?
Representing a category is not defining it
pros of prototype approach
-Allows for variation within category -Consistent with much empirical evidence
What is Smith et al (1974) Sentence verification technique study? What was the finding?
-Asked to respond "yes"(true) or "no" (false) ie: "an apple is a fruit" "a pomegranate is a fruit" MEASURED RESPONSE TIMES -Found that response times were faster for objects rated higher in prototypicality (JUDGED MORE RAPIDLY)
Cons of prototype approach
-Because it relies on comparison to "an average" does not do well explaining how we learn atypical cases ie:penguins
Rosch (1975) (Prototypical // Priming Stimulus) FOUND
-Hearing the word "green" primes a highly prototypical "green" -ss faster to say "same" for pairs of "good" examples than pairs of "poor" examples
Sulin and Dooling (1974) researched how memory is reconstructive and the influence of inferences: -Different Groups read identical stories but main character was varied: "Gerald Martin (or Adolf Hitler) strove to undermine the existing government to satisfy his political ambitions. Many supported his efforts." "Carol Harris (or Helen Keller) was a problem child from birth. She was wild, stubborn, and violent." *Sentences could be inferred from our knowledge of the famous characters, but were not actually presented -Recognition test included some non-studied sentences like: "The dictator hated Jews." (Gerald Martin/Adolf Hitler) "She was deaf and blind" (Carol Harris/Helen Keller) What were the RESULTS? Short(5 minutes):__________________ Long(1 week):__________________
-No difference between groups -Participants who read about Hitler/Keller more likely to incorrectly remember the non-presened statements consistent with their knowledge.
Kossyln (1978) studied how mental imagery is affected by the size of an object ACUITY -imagine elephant & rabbit so elephant fills the field -imagine rabbit & fly so rabbit fills the field -in each case, answer questions about the rabbit "does rabbit have whiskers?" and Measured Response Time FINDING: _______to detect details on the larger animal Suggests imagery is acting like _____
-Quicker -perception
Carmichael, Hogan and Walter (1932) study: Three groups of participants shown 12 pictures. 2 groups heard different verbal labels, whilst a control group had no verbal labels. They were asked to draw what they had seen. The drawings were then compared to the original photos and label influenced Ss drawings Conclusion:___________________ Prentice (1954) studied the same as Carmichael et al, except Ss were asked to recognize the objects instead of draw the objects Results: The label effect disappeared Suggests results of Carmichael et al arose during ___________ rather than encoding, because Ss could recognize the non-distorted figures they must have _____ "correct" ___________ into memory
-The label (knowledge) biased memory of the objects -retrieval -encoded -representations
Prototype or Exemplar Approach? Which approach is best for which kind of categories?
-We may use both -Exemplars may work best for small categories(holidays) -Prototypes may work best for larger categories(birds)
In Memory for emotional information, an important dimension seems to be ___________ (physiological activity) rather than ___________ (positive, negative feeling). When people are _________ they remember the same way whether positive or negative.
-arousal -valence -aroused
Paivio's dual-coding theory: Paivio's idea is that the same information could possibly be encoded in _________ ways so that there would in essence be _________ codes for that info -Increases the chances it would be recovered/retrieved in the future
-both -2
Lindsay (2004) slime study induced a false childhood memory. This was done by receiving 2 True school related events (Grade 3-4 & Grade 5-6). Experimenter concocted a FALSE event for grade 1 involving a schoolmate putting slime on the teacher's desk. The critical manipulation was: Half of participants were given their ________________ as narrative was read. -Participants were encouraged to try to remember as much as possible, repeatedly use imagination, & put event in context (think about classmates and "critical manipulation"). -Participants returned to the lab after 1 week for final test False memories were higher at Time 2 after people repeatedly thought about and imagine the event for a week. False memories were significantly higher for the people that received the critical manipulation
-class photo for each year
What are 2 "aspects" of making source errors?
-confusable info in mind -attribution of that info to a given source
Talarico & Rubin (2003) researched Flashbulb Memory -Day after 9/11 asked students *about attacks & *about everyday events from days before attacks (Ss created own cues to events for later testing) -Tested people 1wk, 6wks, 32wks later FOUND: -Actual memory ____________ at same rate for 9/11 & everyday memories -Belief that memory was accurate stayed high for ________ but decreased for ___________ -Ratings of vividness and "reliving" also stayed high for ________ but dropped for __________
-decayed -9/11 -everyday -9/11 -everyday
Ganis et al (2004) Imagery & the brain;fMRI -Ss study object pictures before getting in scanner -In scanner:heard a probe word: "tree" *imagery: when heard a tone-imagine the object *perception: see a faint picture of the object -Asked "is object wider than tall?" -There was a complete overlap of activation from perception & imagery in front and middle of the brain(prefrontal cortex) -Differences were seen in the back of the brain(Visual cortex) SUGGESTS: Even though there is substantial similarity/overlap in the processes and representations of perception & imaging, there are ______________ that help us differentiate between what we __________ and what we ___________
-differences -perceive -imagine
Patient data show evidence for a double __________ between imagery and perception, which indicates ____ mechanisms. There is also evidence for _____ mechanisms
-dissociation -separate -shared
memory for emotional information take home message: Even highly ______________, very ________ and _______ memories can be wrong
-emotional -vivid -detailed
Pylyshyn (1973) Stated that spatial representation is an ____________ and proposed that imagery is ___________ and can be represented by language (verbally). Just appears to be spatial because of the way our semantic system is organized.
-epiphenomenon -propositional
Brown & Kulik coined the term ________________ -Research after Kennedy assassination -Argued there is a "Now Print" mechanism that results in memories that are highly detailed very vivid and long lasting like a photograph BUT Methods did not allow them to assess accuracy Only had reports at a later time no idea how reports compared to what really happened
-flashbulb memory
Peak performance depends on the task (how _______ it is), and there is individual ___________
-hard -differences
Loftus and Palmer studied the misinformation effect. In their study they had people watch film of an auto accident. Experimenter 1: Asked question about speed with different verbs (between subjects) "hit/smashed" >speeds were estimated to be ________ for verbs implying worse contact Experimenter 2: Replicated Exp 1 AND Had people come back 1 week later and asked "Did you see any broken glass?" >People more likely to say there was broken glass if they read ________ than __________
-higher -"smashed" -"hit"
emotional reactions, sense of vividness, etc is ________ for Flashbulb memory & often does not _______ with time
-higher -decrease
Roger Shepard was the first to suggest ________ and _______ share the same mechanisms
-imagery -perception
There seems to be plenty of evidence from mental rotation, scanning, and acuity studies that ________ and ________ share similar representations(spatial) and processes(we act on them as if they are 'real')
-imagery -perception
Stereotypes, schemas, and scripts __________ memory. Memory can include info not actually experienced but inferred because it is ________ and consistent with the stereotype, schema, script This can be helpful to fill gaps, generalize to new situations BUT can ____________ memory
-influence -expected -distort
emotion tends to improve _________ memory, often but not always disrupts memory for _____________, and tends to increase __________ memory (higher confidence, vividness ratings, higher belief in truth, etc)
-item -context -subjective
Kossyln's (1973) MENTAL SCANNING experiment -Ss memorize picture -create a mental image of it -Mentally move from one part of image to another -It took ________ for participants to mentally "move" long distances than short distances *motor-anchor>motor-portal FINDING: Like perception imagery is ____________ -Maintains relative distances -People move through the space the same
-longer -spatial
According to Paivio's dual-coding theory, Systems are NOT concerned with the ______________ of the info (ie: printed, auditory, visual, etc) NOT concerned with the ________ of the info (ie: perception or thought)
-modality -source
emotionally charged events are ____________ to remember than less emotionally charged events
-more easily
knowledge can also be represented in _________ which represent the way concepts are organized in the mind. A different kind of model for how _____________ and ____________ are associated in the mind
-networks -concepts -properties
Memory is _______ an exact record of what happens. Also includes and also _______ what actually happens, person's knowledge, experiences, expectations. Influenced by _____ and ________ factors
-not -reflects -social -cultural
Mechanisms ________ overlap. Visual perception involves _____________ processing, involves visual cortex and visual areas(very back of the brain and more anterior part). Imagery is a _______ process driven by parietal cortex(front of brain)
-partially -bottom-up -top-down
______________ inferences are based on knowledge gained through experience. Memory often includes indo that is implied by or is consistent with the to-be-remembered info but was not ______ stated
-pragmatic -Explicitly
Shepard and Meltzer (1971) Mental Rotation: First Application of quantitative cognitive methods to study imagery. -Participants saw 2 figures & had to say if they were the same (but rotated) or different. -Measured time to make the decision -The more the figure had to be rotated to match the longer it took to make decision. INFERENCE: Longer response time reflects time it takes people to actually rotate the image in their mind...more rotation takes longer -People manipulate mental images of objects just as they do actual object *They "move them in ________ time through _________
-real -space
with respect to brain activity for perception and imagery of objects (Ganis 2004) perception and imagery activate the __________ areas of the frontal lobe but perception activates more of the ______ of the brain than imagery does
-same -back
Brewer & Treyens studied how memory is influenced by people's __________ about offices. -ss waited in a cluttered office then went into another room and were asked to recall all they could about what was in the waiting room. -Recall of non-present but schema consistent items (ie:books) was __________ -Recall of present but inconsistent items (ie:picnic basket) was ___________
-schemas -high -low
_________ is the leading explanation for the misinformation effect? __________ memory is for where we got info -People misattribute memory from postevent (misinformation) to the originally witnessed event . A lot like DRM effect
-source memory error -Source
Kossyln et al (1978) MENTAL SCANNING experiment -Ss scanned an island with 7 locations, 21 possible "trips" -Took longer to scan greater distances **SUPPORTS idea that visual imagery is __________ (depictive), and we operate on these ___________ representations in real time. -representation & process the same as perception
-spatial -spatial
Kosslyn et al study on mental scanning supports idea that visual imagery is __________ and we operate on these __________ representations in real time? _________ and _________ the same as perception
-spatial -spatial -representation -process
experts are more likely to use _____________ when labeling objects, whereas non-experts are more likely to use________
-subordinate -basic
what did Finke and Pinkers (1982) study support and what did it have a strong argument against?
-supported Kosslyn because found strong evidence for spatial recognition -Had a strong argument against Plylshyns tacict knowledge
A better method to testing flashbulb memory is:
-time 1 as close as possible to event (baseline) -time 2+ later reports compared to baseline -Comparison with NON-emotional event
____________ refers to the tendency for eyewitnesses to a crime to focus attention on a weapon which causes _________ memory for other things that are happening
-weapon focus -worse
___________________________ Theory: Two distinct, but inter-related, systems in our mind for the processing and representation of information *VERBAL SYSTEM -specialized for dealing with linguistic info, processing of language -specialized for sequential processing due to the serial nature of language *NON-VERBAL SYSTEM -specialized for processing non-verbal objects and events such as processing spatial layout -enters into tasks such as the analysis and representation of scenes, maps, etc
Paivio's Dual-Coding
What were Lindsay's findings from the slime study?
People incorporate details from "real" memories (photo) into new memories of suggested events, making false memories seem more "real" -feature borrowing This also works with false pictures
What was the general finding from the 3-stage Misinformation Procedure?
People report witnessing things that were only suggested to them later -20-45% error rates -highly detailed confidently held
Are the following Advantages or Disadvantages Of (Re)Construction of memories? -Allows us to "fill in the blanks" (efficient) -Cognition is creative (understand language, solve novel problems, & make novel decisions)
Advantages
Specific kind of episodic memory -recollected events that belong to a person's "personal past" (very rich memories) -part of your "life story" (Includes a sense of self) -Multidimensional (spatial, emotional, sensory components)
Autobiographical Memory (AM)
What happened during the cognitive revolution?
Came up with ways to measure imagery
Category membership based on whether the object meets the ___________ of the category does not work well because not all members of everyday categories have the same defining features
Definition
______________ Approach to Categorization -concept is represented by multiple examples (rather than a single prototype) -Examples are actual category members -To categorize, compare the new item to stored examples. The more similar a newly experienced exemplar is to a known category member (stored exemplar), the faster it will be categorized -easily takes into account atypical cases -explains typicality effect -easily deals with highly variable categories ie:games
Exemplar
What did Tanaka & Taylor (1991) find out about how knowledge can affect categorization when they asked bird experts & non-experts to name objects? (interest was how they named birds)
Experts use more specific info to categorize, name at more specific level
What is the misinformation effect?
False information introduced after witnessed event can change witness' memory
Memory for circumstances surrounding learning about shocking highly emotionally (usually socially-shared) events -NOT memory for event itself -Memory for how you heard about it *where you were, who told you, what were you doing)
Flashbulb Memory (FB)
Bartlett's "war of the ghosts" experiment
Had participants attempt to remember a story from a different culture Repeated reproduction Results Over time, reproduction became shorter, contained omissions and inaccuracies Changed to make the story more consistent with their own culture
Collins & Quillian (1969) concepts are linked__________ Node = Category distance between concepts predicts how long it takes to retrieve info ie: A canary is...an animal(2)>a bird(1)
Hierarchically
Category member closely resembles category prototype -"typical" member
High-prototypicality
_________ Representations: Linguistically-based mental representations -derived by abstracting the meaning of the item to be represented -tend to abstract the "gist" of the info -"explanations" of the world based on meaning ie:digital clock
Propositional
"typical" instance. -An abstract representation of the typical or average member of a category
Prototype
___________ is an explanation proposed to account for the results of some imagery experiments that stated that participants unconsciously use knowledge about the world in making their judgments This explanation has been used as one of the arguments against the idea that imagery involves depictive or spatial representation
Tacit knowledge explanation
Pylyshyn (2003) argued Kosslyn's results can be explained by using real-word knowledge unconsciously Known as
Tacit-Knowledge explanation
____________________ are magnetic pulses applied to temporarily disrupt the functioning of part of the brain -If behavior is disrupted the deactivated part of the brain is causing (necessary for) that behavior
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
True or False Paivo's dual-code hypothesis states that info is usually (or at least can be) represented in verbal & non-verbal form
True
The following is a summary of evidence for _______ effect: -Highly prototypical objects JUDGED MORE RAPIDLY *sentence verification (Smith et al 1974) -Prototypical objects are NAMED MORE RAPIDLY ie: quickly name as many birds as possible, sparrow would be named before penguin -Prototypical category members are more AFFECTED BY A PRIMING STIMULUS *(Rosch 1975)
Typicality
Prototypical objects are processed preferentially -Highly prototypical objects JUDGED MORE RAPIDLY -Prototypical objects are NAMED MORE RAPIDLY ie: quickly name as many birds as possible, sparrow would be named before penguin -Prototypical category members are more AFFECTED BY A PRIMING STIMULUS
Typicality effect
patient ignores objects i one half of visual field in both perception and imagery
Unilateral neglect
What is it called when the tendency to focus attention on a weapon results in a narrowing of attention by arousal/emotion, & witnesses miss details about the crime and the perpetrator?
Weapon focus effect
______________ is the idea that people perform best at intermediate levels of arousal and that performance is lower at high or low levels of arousal
Yerkes-Dodson (Inverted-U) Hypothesis
Mental scanning experts usually find
a positive linear relationship between scanning time and distance on the image (ie: RT goes up as distance goes up)
Mental-scanning and mental rotation experiments found
a positive linear relationship between scanning time and distance on the image. ie: RT goes up as distance goes up
What is spatial representation?
a representation in which different parts of an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space
The prototype approach to categorization states that a standard representation of a category is based on
a single average of many category members that have been encountered in the past
Lindsay & Johnson's misinformation effect experiment that compared memory using a recognition test vs a source identification test showed that participants made more errors when tested with
a yes/no recognition memory test
Paivio's dual-coding theory: EVIDENCE: memory for... -pictures>words -concrete words>abstract words (ie:justice) BECAUSE________
abstract are less likely to evoke the spontaneous imaging of the word
Most evidence suggests there is nothing "special" about flashbulb memory with respect to _______. Especially once you control for amount of rehearsal or repeated review of the info
accuracy
A lesson to be learned from the research on flashbulb memories is that extreme vividness of a memory does not mean it is
accurate
Kosslyn (1978) did a study in which he had people form simultaneous images of two different size animals such as a rabbit alongside an elephant. He then asked the subjects basic questions about the animals. For example, if the rabbit had whiskers. Such studies use what is known about visual _________ to explore the similarities between perception and imagery
acuity
_____________ Representations: mental representations that retain much of the structure of the thing they represent -have a "closer" relationship to the thing they are representing -more "picture-like" or schematic ie:analogue clock -maintain much of the detail of the item and also lots of info about relationships ie:spatial
analogical
According to Rosch the _____________ level of categories is the psychologically "privileged" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience
basic
Propositional representations and Analogical representations ________ be used regardless of how information is originally experienced
can
which of the following is a basic level concept -motor vehicle -car -ford fiesta -all are at the same level
car
In Kosslyn et al., 1999, studied how TMS helps in imagery domain: -Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was applied to visual area of the brain during perception & imagery task. -Control condition: TMS was applied to another area -Response times were slower for both perceive & imagine CONCLUSION: Brain activity in visual area of brain plays a ___________ role for both perception and imagery
casual
process by which things, ideas, etc.(concepts) are placed into groups(categories)
categorization
mental representation of information -both concrete("cat") and abstract ("justice") -used for a variety of cognitive functions (memory, reasoning, language)
concept
The fact that people's memories are based on what actually happened plus additional factors such as expectations other knowledge and other life experiences shows the
constructive nature of memory
When information undergoes changes during encoding and changes during remembering
constructive/reconstructive
In Bartlett's war of the ghosts experiment participants reproductions contained inaccuracies based primarily on
cultural expectations
In the "war of the ghosts" experiment participants reproductions contained inaccuracies based on
cultural expectations
_____________ does not prove to be helpful with categories
definitional
Is the following an Advantage or Disadvantage Of (Re)Construction of memories? Sometimes we make errors based on inferences, schemas, stereotypes, etc
disadvantage
Categories are represented by _____________ activity. More similar patterns of brain activity for categories with similar features.
distributed
Sometimes a behavioral event can occur at the same time as a cognitive process even though the behavior isn't needed for the cognitive process. For example, many people look toward the ceiling when thinking about a complex problem even though thinking would continue if they didn't look up THis describes an
epiphenomenon
The spatial experience of mental images is an ______________ -A secondary phenomenon that occurs alongside or in parallel to a primary phenomenon -something that accompanies real process/mechanism but is not actually the process/mechanism itself -ie:lights flashing as a mainframe computer carries out its calculations. The light indicates something is going on inside the computer but doesn't tell us what is actually happening, AND if all the lightbulbs blew out the computer would continue operating just as before
epiphenomenon
In categorization, members of a category that a person has experienced in the past (not abstract averages)
exemplar
______________ are actual members of a category that a person has encountered in the past
exemplars
Mental imagery involves
experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input
Bransford and Johnson -Ss rad sentences such as "The spy threw the secret document into the fireplace just in time since 30 seconds longer would have been too late." -Later took a recognition test. Some test statements were implied info: "The spy burned the secret documents" -RESULTS: 67.5% ________________ of reading actions that were only implied, they were never read. "The spy burned the secret documents"
false memories
which of the following is a subordinate level concept -motor vehicle -car -ford fiesta -all are at the same level
ford fiesta
Perky's experiment in which participants were asked to create visual images of common objects whole unbeknownst to them Perky projected faint images of the objects, showed
imagery and perception can interact with one another (ie: perception can influence imagery)
memory is influenced by _________ that people make based on their experiences and knowledge
inferences
Perky (1910) studied the interaction of imagery & perception: -Ss asked to imagine concrete objects and describe (ie: imagine a banana. describe it) -Unbeknownst to Ss dim images were projected on the screen as they imagined -Ss described projected image *mistook actual picture for a mental image SUGGESTS: Perception & Imagery can ______________
interact
Flashbulb memory is best represented by which of the following statements? 1-it it vivid memory for emotional events 2-it is vivid highly accurate memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event 3-it is memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event that remains especially vivid but not necessarily accurate over time 4-it is vivid highly accurate memory for emotional events
it is memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event that remains especially vivid but not necessarily accurate over time
emotion tends to improve
item memory
what did Pylyshyn argue about spatial representation?
its a epiphenomenon and that representations and processes between perception and imagery are different
information in our minds
knowledge
__________ imagery is experiencing a sensory impression in your mind in the absence of external sensory input.
mental
Shepard and Metzler measured the time it took for participants to decide whether two objects were the same (2 different views of the same object) or different (2 different objects). These researchers inferred cognitive processes by using
mental chronometry
3 cognitive methods for studying visual imagery
mental rotation scanning acuity (sharpness)
The General 3-stage ________ Procedure is... 1. "Witness" an event >slides, pictures, live event 2. Exposure to misleading postevent information (MPI) >text narratives, questions about original event 3. "Testify" >test memory for original "witnessed" event
misinformation
Research on eyewitness testimony suggests that there is a ____________ correlation between confidence and accuracy (sometimes confidence predicts accuracy but not under all conditions)
modest
Collins & Loftus (1975) _________________ -shorter links to connect closely related concepts -longer links for less related concepts -no hierarchical structure Structures Based on Person's Experience
modifications
which of the following is a superordinate level concept -motor vehicle -car -ford fiesta -all are at the same level
motor vehicle
According to Paivio's dual-coding theory, Systems ARE concerned with the ______________ of the info (ie: verbal-based, image-based)
nature
In ___________ there is a relationship between viewing distance/size and ability to perceive details. The closer we are the bigger the image the more detail we can see
perception
Kosslyn's transcranial magnetic stimulation experiment on brain activation that occurs in response to imagery found that the brain activity in the visual cortex
plays a causal role in both perception and imagery
What is another name for categories?
pointers to knowledge
Inferences based on knowledge gained through experience
pragmatic inferences
Pylyshyn proposed that imagery is ____
propositional
Rosch (1975) did a priming study in which concept labels (ie, green) led to faster response times to indicate that two circles showing "good" examples of the color (ie, primary color green) were the same than response times when the two circles were "less good" examples of that color (ie light green). The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the _______ approach to categorization
prototype
The ____________ approach to categorization involves forming a single representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past
prototype
The degree to which a particular member of a category matches the prototype for that category
prototypicality
How is mental imagery useful?
provides a way of thinking that adds another dimension besides purely verbal
Source test does not always completely eliminate the misinformation effect but does ___________ it
reduce it
The text argues that the proper procedure for measuring the accuracy of flashbulb memories is
repeated testing
a person's knowledge about some aspect of the environment ie: what a post office looks like from the outside, inside, and service it provides through our own experience
schema
some patient data suggests Perception and imagery ______ brain mechanisms
share
The study by Sulin and Dooling (!1974) where they had people read stories and changed the names between groups (ie Carol Harris vs Helen Keller) showed that
some memories are shaped by our prior knowledge expectations and stereotypes
Which of the following members would most likely be ranked highest in prototypicality -raven -duck -hummingbird -sparrow
sparrow
Which of the following members would most likely be ranked highest in prototypicality in the "birds" category? -raven -duck -hummingbird -sparrow
sparrow
__________________ activation: When a node is activated activity spreads out along all connected links
spreading
tacit knowledge explanation
subjects unconsciously use knowledge about the world in making their judgements
People playing "20 questions"often use hierarchical organization strategies. One player asks up to 20 yes/no questions to determine the identity of an object another player has selected. Initial questions asked by a player are often one of three questions: "is it an animal?" "Is it a vegetable?" and "is it a mineral?" Each of these three questions describes which level of categorization?
superordinate
How are categories structured in the mind?
superordinate (Global)- ie: furniture, vehicle basic- ie: table, truck subordinate (specific)- ie: kitchen, pickup
In their imagery study, Finke and Pinker presented a four dot display briefly to participants. After a two second delay participants then saw an arrow and their task was to indicate whether the arrow would have pointed to any of the dots in the previous display. The significance of their results was they called into question the _____________ explanation of imagery.
tacit-knowledge
Which level of categories did Rosch argue is psychologically privileged because it is the one pp typically think of and communicate
the basic level
Why are categories useful?
they help us to understand individual cases not previously encountered
Has consequences for cognition
typicality
________ imagery is "seeing" with the mind's eye -in the absence of a visual stimulus
visual
